and early twentieth centuries, there were indeed a number of modernist rev-
olutions, but with the exception of Kemalist Turkey, they did not endure in
the form of democratic, representative governments.^63 Rather, given post war
geo-political and economic agendas, Muslim States, themselves often created
by European powers drawing lines in the sand, became subjected to various
forms of neo colonialism. Notwithstanding independence movements and
even a variety of indigenous modernizing movements, the societies remained
economically stagnant, politically ossified and recalcitrant to change.
Much of the post war history of the world could be seen as alienated peo-
ple attempting to take charge of their lives and fight, even die, if need be,
for self-determination. And indeed while the global maps were redrawn, in
many countries, autonomy and independence from colonial authorities did
not bring freedom and self determination. This has been especially true in
the Islamic world, and especially the Arab states. Islamic fundamentalism
can be understood as an expression of alienation from political power, the
fragmentation of communities, thwarted self determination and challenges
to a traditional moral order. Just as Hitler promised a 1000 year Reich free
of Jews, Islamisms promise restoring a Caliphate free from political domi-
nation by alien powers and without the corrupting influences of infidel Others.
While Islamic societies faced these global winds of change, they began at
a different place. As was argued, between the legacies of decline and defeat,
internal barriers to Western values, ideas and commercial practices, and often
colonization, there was a lingering ressentementto the West. This was fol-
lowed by neo-imperialist interventions that subverted progressive mobiliza-
tions. As a result, Muslim societies have been both economically stagnant
and autocratically ruled, often at the behest of neo-imperial powers seeking
either resources (oil), geo political influence or both. Thus Islamism, a fusion
of politics and fundamentalism, not only stressed spiritual renewal, but
promises a restoration of the community of virtue, the umma,as it was, or is
imagined it was, at the time of the Caliphate.
While most fundamentalisms see themselves in conflict with the creatural
world, and remain content to pray and perhaps exert political pressure where
possible, as we have stated, in many Muslim countries, there are few chan-
nels for independent political action. Such conditions lead to certain people
From the Caliphate to the Shaheedim• 339(^63) Turkish Exceptionalism has always been used to critique other Muslim countries
for not having “modernized”. This, for example, has shaped the views of Bernard
Lewis. Turkey has been used to justify Orientalism.