of certain classes willing to take up arms against their “enemies” from within
or without. Islamisms, however, have framed their grievances in religious
terms and invoke holy war. Jihad, and its extreme form, shaheedenmartyr-
dom, are responses to the economic despair catalyzed by globalization, oppres-
sion and/or the political powerlessness of oppressed people. Given the lack
of decent jobs and/or political voice through independent “grass roots” polit-
ical institutions and/or opposition parties or democratic NGOs, and in the
face of economic and political adversities, facing assaults by Western culture
from its dehumanizing rationality to its hedonistic self indulgence and bla-
tant sexuality, mosques become places of solace and Islamism is the only
likely response.
Political grievances that are often quite legitimate become articulated through
religious discourses. Moreover, there are times when fundamentalists actu-
ally take over the State such as in Taliban Afghanistan, Khomeini’s Iraq or
Bush’s United States. But governance based on religion and scripture cannot
govern very well in a globalized world dependent on advanced technolo-
gies. Fundamentalisms, while responses to economic and/or political depri-
vations, cannot foster the rational policies that produce wealth within and
promote co-operation with other States. Such forms of governance will either
implode or lose legitimacy. To embrace fundamentalism, whatever its short
term gratifications may be, is a very irrational choice. But this contradiction
is only evident to those whose dialectical understanding of society was
informed by the Frankfurt School.
Epilogue-After Jihad
Various scenarios suggest that the foreseeable future portend nothing but
endless war and conflict between the West and Islamic jihadifor several gen-
erations. But the analysis presented suggests that while Islamisms are likely
to continue in the short run, and the jihadispower will grow, at some point,
between their growing numbers and sheer violence, they and their issues will
force recognition and acknowledgement. I would suggest that just as the
Chinese communists and British colonizers of India played key roles in fos-
tering Indian and Chinese modernities, so too will Islamisms wane and fos-
ter Islamic modernities (See Langman and Morris 2002). Fundamentalisms
can never address their basic contradictions; their anti-modernity exacer-
bates the very problems they would seek to ameliorate (Cf. Roy 1994). Critical
340 • Lauren Langman