Litany of the Sun This was a religious document dis-
played in the tomb of SETI I(r. 1306–1290 B.C.E.) and
attributed to the cult of the god RÉ. Part of the established
MORTUARY RITUALS of the New Kingdom (1550–1070
B.C.E.), the litany attests to the endurance of RÉ, even in
the eras dominated by the deity AMUNat THEBES. In time
the deity became Amun-Ré, incorporating the solar cult
into the Theban theology.
literature A true form of cultural expression and art in
ancient Egypt, both religious and secular in nature and
developing over the period of history from the Early
Dynastic Period (2920–2575 B.C.E.) to the Ptolemaic
Period (304–30 B.C.E.) and Roman Period (after 30
B.C.E.), the literature of the Egyptians was normally
didactic, but eventually it came to include tales, poems,
songs, lullabies, hymns, liturgies, prayers, and litanies.
The hieroglyphs that evolved into the Egyptian written
language appeared in a variety of forms, as the written
word became part of the decoration of monuments,
tombs, stelae, and instruments of daily use. Scribes
copied documents from earlier ages as part of their train-
ing, preserving many documents and literary efforts.
Some of these texts have been preserved on papyri or on
ostraka, the boards and slates used by individual stu-
dents.
During the Late Period (712–332 B.C.E.) and the
Ptolemaic Period, few Egyptian literary works were forth-
coming. The Ptolemaic Period produced remarkable mas-
terpieces at Alexandria, but these were Greek in style and
content. Around 195 B.C.E.,ARISTOPHANES OF BYZANTIUM
was able to establish the Alexandrian Canon, a standard
of excellence in all of the literary genres. Alexandrian
poets impacted upon the literary works of the entire
world of the time.
The literature of Egypt is so vast and covers so many
centuries that it is normally accorded distinct categories.
They are the following:
RELIGIOUS TEXTSDesigned to bolster the state cult of the king, the oldest
religious documents are the PYRAMID TEXTS, discovered
on the walls of the various chambers of the pyramids of
the rulers of the Fifth (2465–2323 B.C.E.) and Sixth
Dynasties (2323–2150 B.C.E.). The texts delineate the
magical spells that were designed to provide the king
with an eternal bliss beyond the grave, where he would
receive his rewards for service and be welcomed by the
gods. The daily offerings to be made as part of the mortu-
ary ritual in the pyramid were also listed.
Soon after, the nobles began to assume the same
rights as the king as far as benefits beyond the grave were
concerned, and they had Pyramid Texts placed in their
coffins. These COFFIN TEXTS also contained spells and
magical incantations to allow the dead to assume super-
natural forms and to overcome whatever obstacles
awaited them on their journey in the afterlife. The early
forms of the BOOK OF THE DEADdate to this period, the
First Intermediate Period (2134–2040 B.C.E.). The Book
of the Dead underwent various changes over the cen-
turies, remaining popular. The most complete versions
date to the Ptolemaic Period (304–30 B.C.E.), and these
contain as many as 150 separate spells. The coffin variety
of the Book of the Dead was placed on PAPYRUSin the
New Kingdom (1550–1070 B.C.E.).
Other religious texts, including the Ritual of the
Divine Cult,the Book of Gates,and the Destruction of
Mankind,all follow the same general pattern of magical
incantations and descriptions of the various chambers or
stages to be discovered in the Tuat, or Underworld. The
elaborately beautiful hymns to the various deities were
also popular. The OVERTHROWING APOPHISand other reli-
gious documents provide an insight into the reli-
gious aspects of Egyptian life. Especially graceful are the
hymns to the gods AMUNand ATEN, which date to the
New Kingdom.
Magical papyri and mortuary stelae placed in ABYDOS
as part of the great Osirian cult provide other informa-
tion. The stelae announce the ranks, deeds, and general
goodness of the owners. Letters were also written to the
deceased, on the assumption that in the afterlife the indi-
vidual had powers and could remedy situations on earth.
The custom of informing the dead about contemporary
issues remained popular in some areas of Egypt into
modern times.
SCIENTIFIC TEXTS
While the religious mortuary texts of Egypt dealt mainly
with magic and divine intercession in human affairs, the
nation also focused on the practical aspects of life. As a
result, various sciences were undertaken, not in a specu-
lative way but in order to facilitate the performance of
daily activities. Medical texts reflected the practical
aspects of Egyptian literature. Manuscripts from the New
Kingdom, including the EBERS PAPYRUS and the EDWIN
SMITH PAPYRUS, as well as others, display the anatomical
knowledge and curative ability of the priests, who were
regulated in their methods of diagnosis, treatment, and
posttreatment.
Among mathematical texts discovered are the RHIND
PAPYRUSand one currently in Moscow. Another identifies
agricultural crops, birds, animals, and geographical loca-
tions. Texts on astronomy, irrigation, geography, and hus-
bandry were also found. Military texts abound, part of
the record of events from the unification of Upper and
Lower Egypt in 3,000 B.C.E., with the exploits of the New
Kingdom (1550–1070 B.C.E.) pharaohs described in
detail. Travel records from that same period provide
information about Egypt’s relationships with other lands,
and conditions in the world at the time. The Report of
WENAMUN, composed at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty
(c. 1070 B.C.E.), is particularly enlightening. The Tale of216 Litany of the Sun