Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt

SINUHE THE SAILOR,based on the death of AMENEMHET I(r.
1991–1962 B.C.E.), provides insight into the court
intrigues and to the cultures of other nations during the
Middle Kingdom.

LEGAL TEXTS

Legal documents consist mainly of wills or accounts of
court events, although legal references in the ABBOTT
PAPYRUSoffer a view of social changes along the Nile,
dealing with tomb robberies and their prosecution at the
close of the New Kingdom. Wills placed in tombs, deeds
of sale, census lists, and records of lawsuits have been
discovered. The Edict of HOREMHABhas provided infor-
mation about the conditions in Egypt at the close of the
Eighteenth Dynasty (1307 B.C.E.).
Texts concerning the government administration
have been discovered as well. REKHMIRÉ, the VIZIERfor
TUTHMOSIS III(r. 1479–1425 B.C.E.), had the instructions
of the king concerning his office, and the ideals of such a
position, inscribed on his tomb walls at Thebes. Texts
from the ELEPHANTINE, concerning the work of the
viceroys of NUBIA, date to many periods, as do the reports
of officials on expeditions for the throne. Inscriptions of
expeditions can be seen on cliffs in the various wadis and
in the desert regions, announcing the mining and quarry-
ing activities.

FANTASTIC TALES

The TALE OF THE SHIPWRECKED SAILOR,dating to the Middle
Kingdom (2040–1640 B.C.E.), remained popular in Egypt.
The story elaborates on mystical creatures and magical
events. The TALE OF THE DOOMED PRINCE,the TALE OF TWO
BROTHERS,and the TALE OF KHUFU AND THE MAGICIANSall
relate magical happenings and even adventures rife with
perils. The story concerning KHUFU (Cheops; r.
2551–2528 B.C.E.), the builder of the Great PYRAMIDat
GIZA, has descriptions of idle hours spent on pleasure
boats among harem maidens clothed in fishnets.

DIDACTIC TEXTS

The ancient Egyptians were fond of texts that provided
idealistic views of life and encouraged them to assume a
more enlightened manner of cooperation. Some of these
texts bemoaned conditions in the land in times of dynas-
tic weakness, while others maintained maxims and
adages clearly meant to instruct. PTAH-HOTEP(2), a sage
of the Fifth Dynasty (2465–2323 B.C.E.), and KAGEMNI,of
the Third Dynasty (2649–2575 B.C.E.), were among the
first to admonish royalty and commoner alike. KHETY III
of the Ninth Dynasty gave his son MERIKARÉinstructions
about the behavior of kings, as did AMENEMHET I(r.
1991–1962 B.C.E.) of the Twelfth Dynasty. Amenemhet I’s
discourse details the obligations of a ruler and the needs
of his subjects. Also popular were the recorded words of
the ELOQUENT PEASANT, from the First Intermediate
Period (2134–2040 B.C.E.). Didactic literature remained a

constant in Egypt, and many sages were honored by the

Egyptians of all eras.

During the Ptolemaic Period (304–30 B.C.E.), a native

Egyptian called Ankhsheshongy wrote Instructionsbased

on the ancient style, despite the Greek influences around

him. Written about 100 B.C.E., the Instructionsbecame

highly popular in the Nile Valley because the work

brought the traditional forms of the past to life again.

POETIC TEXTS

The religious and social events of the various historical

periods were normally accompanied by music. The plea-

sures of music, feasting, and love became part of the

rhythm of life on the Nile, eventually giving rise to love

songs, which often told of lovesick swains separated from

their sweethearts. Sycamore trees, birds, and the winds

became messengers of love in the poetic texts, with the

lovers pledging their hearts and vowing eternal affection.

Love songs appear to have been recorded first in the Mid-

dle Kingdom; the late New Kingdom period provided

many more. The songs capture the directness of the

Egyptian people, as well as their sensitivity to the sea-

sons, their easy affection, and their love of metaphor and

conventional imagery. The hymn to SENWOSRET III (r.

1878–1841 B.C.E.) epitomizes this form of Egyptian liter-

ature.

Suggested Readings:Cerny, Jaroslav. Paper and Books in

Ancient Egypt. London: 1952; Davies, W. V. Egyptian

Hieroglyphs.London: 1987; Fischer, Henry G. Ancient

Egyptian Calligraphy.New York: 1979; Kaster, Joseph. The

Wisdom of Ancient Egypt.New York: 1993; Lichtheim,

Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature.Los Angeles: 1975;

Smith, William, ed. The Literature of Ancient Egypt.New

Haven: 1973.

Liturgy of the Funerary Offerings This is a list of the

funerary gifts and rituals conducted by the priests

involved in the mortuary cults of the ancient Egyptians.

Evolving from the LIST OF OFFERINGS,which dates to the

Old Kingdom (2575–2134 B.C.E.), the liturgy was devised

to magically change meat, bread, and wine into divine

spiritual substances, which were offered to the dead. This

transmutation of offerings is documented in the tombs of

the Fifth Dynasty (2465–2323 B.C.E.) but was probably

part of Egypt’s religious vision in use before that. More

than 114 ceremonies were included in the liturgy.

The purification of the mummified remains, the

incensing accompanied by magical incantations and

prayers, were used to perform the rituals of the burial and

restoration of the deceased in the liturgy.The priests

were believed capable of revitalizing the senses and the

various organs of the dead with the spells provided.

These rituals were based on the resurrection of OSIRISand

on the basic creed that no life is obliterated at physical

Liturgy of the Funerary Offerings 217