DISCRIMINATIONpresent ‘‘tastes,’’ attitudes, or awareness.
Hence, models based primarily on indi-
vidual prejudice or ‘‘rationality,’’ wheth-
er psychological or economic, will uni-
formly understate and oversimplify the
phenomenon.- Discrimination is typically cumulative and
self-perpetuating. For example, an array of
research on black Americans has demon-
strated that neighborhood racial segrega-
tion leads to educational disadvantages,
then to occupational disadvantage, and
thus to income deficits (Pettigrew 1979,
1985). To be effective, structural reme-
dies must reverse this ‘‘vicious circle’’
of discrimination. Affirmative action pro-
grams are one such remedy.
Seen in sociological perspective, then, dis-
crimination is considerably more intricate and
entrenched than commonly thought. The com-
plexity of discrimination presents major challenges
to social-scientific attempts to trace its impact.
This complexity also precludes any one-to-one
correspondence between perpetration and respon-
sibility for remedy. Broad social programs will be
necessary if the full legacy of direct and indirect
discrimination is finally to be erased.
REFERENCES
Amin, K., M. Fernandes, and P. Gordon 1988 Racism
and Discrimination in Britain: A Select Bibliography,
1984–87. London: Runnymede Trust.
Antonovsky, A. 1960 ‘‘The Social Meaning of Discrimi-
nation.’’ Phylon 11:81–95.
Becker, G. 1968 ‘‘Economic Discrimination.’’ In D. L.
Sills, ed., International Encyclopedia of the Social Sci-
ences, vol. IV. New York: Macmillan.
Bergman, B. R., and I. Adelman 1973 ‘‘The 1973 Report
of the President’s Council of Economic Advisors:
The Economic Role of Women.’’ American Economic
Review 63:509–514.
Blinder, A. S. 1973 ‘‘Wage Discrimination: Reduced
Form and Structural Estimates.’’Journal of Human
Resources 8:436–455.
Blumrosen, A. W. 1996 Declaration. Statement submit-
ted to the Supreme Court of California in response
to Proposition 209 (Sept. 26, 1996).
Braddock, J. H. II, and J. M. McPartland 1987 ‘‘How
Minorities Continue to be Excluded from Equal
Employment Opportunities: Research on Labor Mar-
ket and Institutional Barriers.’’ Journal of Social Is-
sues 43:5–39.
——— 1989 ‘‘Social Psychological Processes that Per-
petuate Racial Segregation: The Relationship Be-
tween School and Employment Desegregation.’’ Jour-
nal of Black Studies 19:267–289.
Burkey, R. 1978 Ethnic and Racial Groups: The Dynamics
of Dominance. Menlo Park, Calif.: Cummings.
Burstein, P. 1985 Discrimination, Jobs, and Politics. Chica-
go: University of Chicago Press.
Castles, S. 1984 Here for Good: Western Europe’s New
Ethnic Minorities. London: Pluto Press.
Conway, D. A., H.V. and Roberts 1994 ‘‘Analysis of
Employment Discrimination through Homogeneous
Job Groups.’’ Journal of Econometrics 61:103–131.
Corcoran M., and G. J. Duncan 1978 ‘‘Work History,
Labor Force Attachment, and Earning Differences
Between Races and Sexes.’’ Journal of Human Resourc-
es 14:3–20.
Daniel, W. W. 1968 Racial Discrimination In England.
Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Dempster, A. P. 1988 ‘‘Employment Discrimination and
Statistical Science.’’ Statistical Science 3:149–195.
De Vries, S., and T. F. Pettigrew 1994 ‘‘A Comparative
Perspective on Affirmative Action: Positieve aktie in
the Netherlands.’’ Basic and Applied Social Psychology
15:179–199.
England, P., G. Farkas, B. Kilbourne, and T. Dou 1988
‘‘Explaining Occupational Sex Segregation and Wages:
Findings from a Model with Fixed Effects.’’ American
Sociological Review 53:544–558.
Farley, R. 1984 Blacks and Whites: Narrowing the Gap?
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Feagin, J. R., and C. B. Feagin 1986 Discrimination
American Style: Institutional Racism and Sexism, 2d ed.
Malabar, Fla.: Krieger.
Feagin, J. R., and M. P. Sikes 1994 Living with Racism:
The Black Middle-Class Experience. Boston, Mass.: Bea-
con Press.
Fox, M. F. 1991 ‘‘Gender, Environmental Milieux, and
Productivity in Science.’’ In J.Cole, H. Zuckerman,
and J. Bruer, eds., The Outer Circle: Women in the
Scientific Community. New York: Norton.
Gill, A. M. 1989 ‘‘The Role of Discrimination in Deter-
mining Occupational Structure.’’ Industrial and La-
bor Relations Review 42:610–623.
Gordon, P., and F. Klug 1984 Racism and Discrimination
in Britain: A Select Bibliography, 1970–83. London:
Runnymede Trust.