As hostage negotiation developed over the decades
of the 1970s and 1980s, it was observed that the major-
ity of negotiator incidents were either initiated by an
individual or within some family dyad. As such, the
typical negotiator intervention entailed interaction
with a barricaded subject, a suicidal individual, or a
couple who were engaged in a violent domestic con-
frontation. These incidents required the application of
crisis-intervention techniques and active listening
skills. The overall principle in crisis negotiation is that
time is on the side of the negotiator in that the passage
of time will provide a “cooling off” period for the indi-
vidual who is seen as a victim rather than as a perpe-
trator. Over time, the emotional lability of the individual
will dissipate, which allows for the introduction of
active listening techniques by the negotiator. This sys-
tem of communication provides a spectrum of responses
that facilitate viable, objective problem-solving options
to the individual in crisis.Team Composition and Tactics
A hostage/crisis negotiation event is a complicated and
potentially dangerous undertaking for any law enforce-
ment agency. Almost all these situations demand the
response of a two-pronged team, the special weapons
and tactics team (SWAT). The SWAT team consists of
a heavily armed and specially trained group of police
officers, while the second component of the team is the
group of police negotiators. The primary function of the
tactical team is for the protection of the SWAT team,
especially the negotiators, the victims of the event, the
general public, hostages (if any), and, lastly, the sub-
ject(s). The tactical team is also responsible for initiat-
ing any proactive or reactive options during the
progression of the event. The negotiator team is respon-
sible for the acquisition of any on-scene information
deemed relevant to both the tactical and negotiator
teams. The second primary function of the negotiators
is, obviously, the active negotiation process.
On the arrival of the SWAT team, the tactical mem-
bers will diligently establish an inner perimeter that
allows for the establishment of a safe (within the con-
straints of the actual situation) environment for the tac-
tical operations center (TOC). The TOC is the central
decision and command area for the supervisory per-
sonnel. The TOC consists of the tactical commander,
typically a lieutenant; a tactical team leader (sergeant);
a negotiator team leader (lieutenant or sergeant); and
the police psychologist. These individuals have been
trained in the dynamics of critical events and usuallyare certified tactical commanders, with the police psy-
chologist having received at least 80 hours in special-
ized courses in hostage and crisis negotiation. In major
metropolitan police departments, such command and
supervisory personnel have responded to more than
300 to 1,200 of these SWAT callouts to date. The
responsibility of the TOC is to initially determine if the
presence of the SWAT team at the specific scene is
legal and/or necessary. A second task is to develop an
initial action plan. Third, the TOC is responsible for
maintaining an ongoing acceptable and risk-effective
course of action. Within this action plan are typically
four options: immediate assault on the location,
selected sniper fire (an exigent situation to prevent the
loss of life to innocent participants), introduction of
chemical agents, and a negotiation process. It should
be noted that these four options are fluid in nature and
can be used in combination and in no specific order.
The decision process to use any option is predicated on
the anticipated outcomefollowing the initiation of any
one or more of these actions.
Most negotiation teams consist of a lead and
backup negotiator, an electronics technician/negotiator,
several support negotiators, a team leader, and a men-
tal health consultant. Unless there is an exigent situa-
tion, the mental health consultant is never the lead
negotiator (for ethical reasons), nor does just one
negotiator initiate and maintain the negotiation process
(for safety reasons). The lead negotiator is the police
officer responsible for speaking directly to the subject
and for developing and maintaining active listening
skills and verbal tactics that will increase the likeli-
hood for a successful resolution of the crisis. The most
effective negotiators are those who are the best listen-
ers, for it is only through listening that the negotiator
will begin to understand and emotionally connect with
the subject. The secondary negotiator is responsible
for physically protecting (typically by preventing the
lead negotiator from gradually placing his body and
head in the line of fire while distracted by the negoti-
ation process) the lead negotiator, monitoring the
radio frequency, and listening to the negotiation
process and relaying information and suggestions
(typically made by the mental health professional)
back to the lead negotiator. If necessary, during a pro-
tracted negotiation process, the backup negotiator
may relieve the primary negotiator. The electronics
technician/negotiator is responsible for maintaining
all negotiator equipment, setting up all the required
equipment at the scene, and interfacing with local
telephone companies and national cellular companies,168 ———Crisis and Hostage NegotiationC-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:41 PM Page 168