forests. Several glaciers run through the upper Himalayas;
these glaciers periodically drop chunks of ice, which can cre-
ate extremely rugged terrain.
Th e mountains aff ect the climate throughout Asia, block-
ing winds from every direction. Cold northern winds cannot
reach India, keeping India warm. In turn, India’s monsoon
cannot reach Mongolia, keeping Mongolia dry and possibly
accounting for the formation of the Gobi and Takla Makan
deserts. Th e Himalayas themselves have harsh weather, which
limited human settlement.
Th e mountains formed a barrier to the intermingling of
peoples. Ancient people did most of their traveling on foot,
and it took a great deal of time and eff ort to climb slopes and
fi nd mountain passes. Consequently, few people traveled be-
tween India and China. Nevertheless, the Chinese Silk Road
passed through the Himalayas, going through the Nathu La
Pass between China and Tibet and the Jelep La Pass between
Tibet and India. Merchants used this road to transport Asian
merchandise to Persia and points farther west.
CHINA
North of the Himalayas is the huge, high plateau of Tibet.
Th is region is covered with lakes created by glaciers. Winters
in Tibet can be very cold and snowy, and the rugged terrain
kept the area sparsely populated and ensured that the people
living there were isolated from other areas. North of Tibet
is the Takla Makan Desert, a sandy, barren area. East of the
Takla Makan is the larger Gobi desert, which extends north
into Mongolia.
Eastern China is much wetter and more fertile. Many
rivers run from west to east, originating in the Tibetan high-
lands or the Himalayas and emptying into the Pacifi c. Th ese
include the Pearl, the Hai, the Yangtze, and the Yellow rivers.
China has coasts on the Gulf of Tonkin, the South China Sea,
the East China Sea, and the Yellow Sea.
Th e Yangtze River in southern China is China’s longest
river. It begins in the Tibetan Plateau and enters the Pacif-
ic Ocean near the site of the modern city of Shanghai. Th e
Yangtze basin is warm and wet and has a stable temperate to
subtropical climate. Rain falls year-round, though about half
of the annual rainfall occurs in the three months of summer.
Th e soil is very fertile, making this area one of the fi rst places
that humans domesticated plants, starting around 8000 b.c.e.
Th e river had become a major transportation route by the fi rst
century b.c.e.; ships could sail 600 miles upriver from the
ocean, allowing foreign imports to reach well inland. Many
cities rose up on the river’s banks; one of the most important
was modern Nanjing, built around 500 b.c.e. Th e Yangtze
was wide and diffi cult to cross, making it an eff ective bound-
ary between ancient kingdoms.
Th e Qin Ling Mountains north of the Yangtze divide
northern and southern China. North of these mountains
is the Yellow River valley. Th e land surrounding the Yellow
River is buff eted by the cold, dry winds blowing east from the
central Asian plains. Th e soil here is fertile, and early humans
domesticated crops here as well, starting around 8000 b.c.e.
For centuries the Yellow River region was richer and more
populated than the Yangtze River valley, despite the Yangtze’s
warmer climate; the Yangtze gained prominence starting in
the Han Dynasty between 202 b.c.e. and 220 c.e.
Summer rains in the Yellow River region are unreliable,
and winters can be severe. Th e climate is harsh and unstable,
prone to droughts and unexpected violent fl oods, both of
which killed millions of people over the centuries. China was
affl icted with numerous severe droughts during its ancient
history. Writings from the sixth century b.c.e. mention tech-
niques for coping with drought and methods of praying for
rain, some of them suggested by the philosopher Confucius.
Rulers also put a great deal of work into holding back fl oods.
Northeast China, called Manchuria in the 20th century,
was heavily forested in ancient times. Th e climate in this re-
gion varies widely from season to season. Summers are very
hot and rainy, as Pacifi c rain blows in from the southeast. In
the winter winds blow from the northwest, bringing Siberian
cold; the winds are dry, so little snow falls.
Th e Korea Peninsula juts southeast into the ocean from
northeast China. It is separated from China by the Yalu River
and a mountain range. North of Korea is the Sea of Japan;
south of it is the Yellow Sea and Korea Bay. Th e Korea Strait
separates Korea from Japan. Korea’s climate is similar to that
of northeast China, with warm, wet summers and cold, windy
winters. Northeast Korea is mountainous, but the rest of the
peninsula consists of fl at, fertile plains. Rivers fl ow southwest
from the mountains, providing water and fl oodplains suit-
able for rice cultivation.SIBERIA AND MONGOLIA
Siberia stretches all the way across the northern portion of
Asia from the Ural Mountains to the Pacifi c. Eastern Sibe-
ria consists of grasslands with some marshy areas. Th e cen-
tral Siberian plateau has a number of lakes. Th e ground in
northern Siberia is permafrost, earth that never thaws, even
in the summer. Th e northern coastline of Siberia lies along
the Arctic Ocean. Siberia has always been known for its harsh
climate and extreme winters, which have discouraged settle-
ment. Few people aside from some nomadic herders attempt-
ed to live there in ancient times. Th e land is covered with ice
and snow for half the year, most of the rivers and lakes are
frozen for months at a time, and winter temperatures in mod-
ern times reach minus 90 degrees Fahrenheit.JAPAN
Japan is a chain of islands stretching along the Pacifi c coast
of mainland Asia from just south of Sakhalin Island in the
north to Okinawa in the south. Although the archipelago
contains around 3,000 islands, four large islands make up the
main body of Japan. Th ese are Hokkaidō, Honshū, Shikoku,
and Kyūshū. All of Japan is mountainous and experiences
frequent earthquakes; several volcanoes were active there in
ancient times. Most of Japan was covered with forests.climate and geography: Asia and the Pacific 249