Hokkaidō is the northernmost island of the chain and
has the coldest climate. Th e Sea of Okhotsk lies off its north-
east coast, and it is separated from the island of Sakhalin
(now part of the Russian Federation) by a narrow strait. Th is
strait was one of the two main points of entrance to Japan
in ancient times. Hokkaidō has the highest mountains in Ja-
pan. It was heavily forested in the past, making it diffi cult for
people to travel in the interior.
Honshū is the largest island with a range of latitudes. Its
western coast is on the Sea of Japan, and its east coast is on
the Pacifi c Ocean and the Philippine Sea. Th e western side
of Honshū receives winter winds from the northwest; it has
colder weather and receives more snow than the eastern side.
Th e central mountains have a mountainous climate, with
cold, snowy winters and hot, humid summers as well as a
large temperature diff erence between night and day. On the
Pacifi c coast summers are hot and humid, and winters are
warmer than in the west; the central mountains block the
western winds, so this region receives its weather from the
Pacifi c to the southeast. All of Honshū is covered with moun-
tains except for the low-lying marshy area where the city of
Tokyo was founded. Mount Fuji, Japan’s most famous volca-
no, is in central Honshū.
Th e southern islands of Kyūshū and Shikoku have warm,
wet climates. Th e islands that stretch south from Kyūshū are
even warmer and wetter, with a subtropical climate. Th ey are
at particular risk of tropical storms and typhoons (tropical
cyclones). Southwestern Kyūshū is separated from Korea by
a narrow strait; this was the other spot where people entered
the islands from mainland Asia.
Th e ample rainfall and fertile volcanic soil made most
of Japan a good place to grow rice and other crops, though
the mountains and forests did present obstacles to travel and
agriculture. Geographical isolation, however, slowed the de-
velopment of Japanese culture. Japanese people did not learn
about agriculture until around 300 b.c.e. and did not appear
in contemporary histories until the fi rst century c.e. Japan’s
separation from mainland China aff ected cultural prac-
tices; Japanese people adopted Chinese culture and writing
as their own, but they transformed them into something
completely diff erent.
MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA
Mainland Southeast Asia lies on a peninsula south of the
southeastern part of China. Th is area includes the modern
countries of Myanmar, Th ailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia,
and Malaysia. Th e Gulf of Tonkin and the South China Sea
lie off the east coast of Vietnam. Th e Gulf of Th ailand lies
to the south of Th ailand and Cambodia and to the east of
the Malaysian isthmus. To the west of Southeast Asia are the
Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Th e extensive coastline
gave ancient people easy access to the sea, and they became
expert sailors, sailing to islands south and east of the main-
land. Southeast Asian societies also traded with India, and
Southeast Asian ports oft en served as middle stages for the
transport of goods between India and China; trade was vigor-
ous during the fi rst fi ve centuries c.e.
Several rivers fl ow through this region. Th e Irrawaddy
fl ows south from the northern mountains of Myanmar and
empties into the Bay of Bengal; its delta is large, fertile, and
well watered, making this area a prime location for human
settlement. Th e Mekong River originates in the mountains
of southern China, fl ows through northern Myanmar, and
crosses Laos, Th ailand, and Cambodia before reaching
southern Vietnam, where it creates a vast delta before empty-
ing into the ocean. In ancient times this delta was one of the
most productive agricultural regions in all Asia. Th e upriver
stretches of the Mekong fl ow through mountainous terrain,
creating rapids and waterfalls; the lower stretches are more
placid and easily navigable. Th e Red River fl ows from China
to northern Vietnam, where it also forms a fertile delta near
the modern city of Hanoi.
Th is region has a tropical climate, with warm weather
year-round except in the mountains. Th e monsoons aff ect
the weather, creating an annual rainy season; ancient farmers
and sailors relied on the predictable weather and winds. Be-
cause of its proximity to China, the region was readily colo-
nized by Chinese people moving southward. Th ese Chinese
brought with them agriculture, which was easily adapted to
the Southeast Asian climate and terrain, and their own cul-
ture, which local people quickly adopted.INDONESIA, NEW GUINEA, AND THE PHILIPPINES
South of mainland Southeast Asia lies maritime Southeast
Asia, a huge collection of islands between Asia and Australia.
Most of these islands are mountainous but have fertile soil and
ample rainfall to grow crops. People living in these areas adapt-
ed the landscape to create fi elds; they dug terraces on many
hillsides to create fl at fi elds for their rice and other crops.
Th e sea was essential to the dissemination of culture and
trade. Whether these islands were heavily populated and de-
veloped complex civilizations depended very much on how
close they were to the mainland and to one another. Gener-
ally the closer a location was to China, the more likely that
it would be exposed to Chinese culture and agriculture. Th e
remoter islands never acquired much technology in ancient
times. Java and the Philippines were densely populated and
had some educated residents; Borneo and Sulawesi were not.
Th e Strait of Malacca separates Malaysia from the Indo-
nesian island of Sumatra. Sumatra is a large island, mountain-
ous on its southern side and fl at everywhere else. Th e Indian
Ocean lies to the south of Sumatra. To the west of Sumatra is
the island of Java; the Java Sea lies to its north. To the east of
Java lie the islands of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Timor,
and many others.
Th is region is part of the Pacifi c “ring of fi re,” a chain
of active volcanoes that circle the Pacifi c Ocean. Th e volcano
Krakatoa is one of the most famous. It lies in the straits be-
tween Java and Sumatra. Th e Javanese Book of Kings describes
an event that may have been a 416 c.e. eruption of Krakatoa,250 climate and geography: Asia and the Pacific