ous other temples in the Nile Delta region, now entirely lost,
may also have been larger.
Karnak is actually a temple complex consisting of three
main temples and several smaller outer temples. It occupies
a site 247 acres in size and was built over a 1,300-year pe-
riod beginning in about the 16th century b.c.e. Enclosed by
tall brick walls are the three chief temples dedicated to the
gods Amun (the sun god), Montu (the war god), and Mut (the
mother goddess). Th e Great Temple of Amun, the major fea-
ture of the complex, was built during the reign of Ramses II.
Also considered a masterpiece of architecture is the Hy-
postyle Hall, begun during the reign of Ramses I, continued
during the reign of Seti I, and fi nished by Ramses II. Th e hall
is noted for its immense architraves (beams that extend across
the top of columns, forming the lowest part of the entabla-
ture, the usually decorated area above the tops of columns).
It is also noted for its windows with stone latticework. Th e
ceiling is 82 feet high and supported by 12 columns. Th e walls
are painted in earth tones; throughout are reliefs that depict
scenes symbolic of creation. Covering the outer walls of the
hall are pictures of battle scenes. In the courtyard outside the
hall is a 70-foot obelisk erected by Tuthmose I and a 97-foot-
tall, 320-ton obelisk erected by Hatshepsut, best remembered
in ancient Egyptian history as the woman who challenged the
notion that only men could be kings.
THE TEMPLE AT EDFU
One of the chief attractions of Edfu, a small city on the west
bank of the Nile River, is the temple built to the sun god
Horus. Although in many respects the temple is not espe-
cially beautiful, it holds a great deal of interest for historians
because it is the most completely preserved and intact of all
the ancient Egyptian temples. It was built during the Ptol-
emaic dynasty—the ruling period of the Greek family that
controlled the region from 305 b.c.e. to 30 b.c.e. (and the
most famous member of which was Queen Cleopatra). Th e
temple itself was built over a period of time stretching from
237 b.c.e. to 57 b.c.e.
Th e temple is approximately 450 long, 260 feet wide,
and 118 feet tall. It features columns, halls, stairs and a ceil-
ing that are still largely in their original state, including the
colors and decorations. In the courtyard stand statues, and
there are two obelisks at the temple’s entrance. Archaeolo-
gists are also interested in the remains of the ancient town
that lie only steps away from the temple, including monu-
ments that document the history of Edfu as an important
provincial town.
HOMES
Virtually no homes survive from ancient Egypt. Archae-
ologists, however, know a great deal about ancient Egyptian
homes, because when a homeowner died, a model of his
home was oft en placed in his tomb, especially if the person
was wealthy. Archaeologists have also excavated a village
called Deir el-Medina. Th is was the village that housed the
workmen and their families as they constructed and deco-
rated the rock tombs in the Valley of the Kings and the Valley
of the Queens. While the homes themselves did not survive,
archaeologists have been able to learn much about the size
and layout of homes from the ruins.
Typically, homes were square and consisted of sleeping
quarters and a living area. Kitchens were usually outside in
the yard and oft en included a baking oven made of clay. Th e
outside yard was also used as a shop for craft work and as a pen
for livestock. Many homes had storage areas underneath for
food. Depending on how wealthy the family was, there could
be a granary, stables for horses and livestock, and a thresh-
ing area where grain for baking and beer brewing could be
produced. Inside walls were oft en painted with murals that
depicted scenes from daily life. Of course, wealthy people
had more lavish homes. Th ey oft en occupied estates that in-
cluded beautiful courtyards, gardens and ornamental ponds
with fi sh, trees to provide shade, and a shrine to the gods. Th e
insides of their homes typically featured high ceilings, intri-
cately painted walls, and tall pillars.
Most homes had niches that held statues of gods and
goddesses. Th us, a woman who wanted to bear a child might
have a niche with a statue of the cat goddess Bastet, regarded
as the goddess of fertility, or Taweret, the goddess who pro-
tected pregnant women. In general, homes were sparsely fur-
nished. Again depending on the wealth of the homeowner,
there might have been a bed made of a woven mat placed on
a framework, a table for eating, and low stools for sitting;
few chairs had backs. When an occupant bathed, he or she
typically stood on a limestone slab while servants doused the
bather with water; the water ran to a bowl below, which was
later emptied by hand. Toilet needs were met in much the
same way; waste was fl ushed with water to a container below
or sometimes directly into the sand outside.THE MIDDLE EAST
BY DAVID PETECHUK
Th e known history of advanced architecture in the ancient
Near East dates back to around 3500 b.c.e. and can be traced
to the Sumerians, who established a highly developed civi-
lization in this area. Th e Sumerians also developed one of
the oldest monumental architecture styles, called the zig-
gurat, a pyramid-shaped tower featuring a temple at the top.
Despite the many diff erent types of peoples who lived in the
ancient Near East over the years and the constant shift ing of
centers of political power, the architecture of ancient Meso-
potamia shows a certain amount of continuity or cultural
uniformity of style.
What is known today about Mesopotamian architecture
has been gathered from archaeological studies, ancient texts
describing building practices, and pictorial representations
of structures. For example, the Sumerians invented the cyl-
inder seal to keep records of rulers who built various edifi ces
and also, at times, to document building construction and60 architecture: The Middle East