rituals associated with the building process. Cylinder seals
are cylinder-shaped stones carved with decorative designs
and engraved. Th ese seals were used for a variety of purposes,
including as a signature, to confi rm a receipt, and to mark
building blocks. Th ey remained in general use throughout
the area until the fi rst millennium b.c.e. Some of the most
notable cylinders providing architectural information about
ancient Mesopotamia come from the late third millennium
b.c.e. during the rule of King Gudea of Lagash (ca. 2150–2100
b.c.e.), who built the temple of Ningishzida and the temple
of Geshtinanna. Although they did not normally contain in-
formation on common architecture and building practices,
Sumerian cylinder seals have also recorded that houses in
marshlands were built of reeds instead of the commonly used
mud-baked brick made from local clay.
Most scholarly interest and available data on Mesopota-
mian architecture have focused on monumental buildings,
such as temples and palaces. Temples represent the most en-
during architectural monuments of the land, refl ecting that
culture’s focus on serving and honoring the gods they wor-
shipped. Less is known about houses and other structures, pri-
marily because little stone was available for building and these
mud-brick buildings deteriorated quickly or were routinely
destroyed, with new structures built over the same sites.
ZIGGURATS
Th e most ancient and impressive monumental architecture
of ancient Mesopotamia can be traced back to the Sumerians
and is called a ziggurat. Th e name comes from the Akkadian
word ziqqurratu, which means “height” or “pinnacle.” Th ese
ancient towers were stepped structures that archaeologists
believe served primarily as the bases for temples to the Meso-
potamians’ various gods. Archaeologists have also found that
the process of building one of these structures was considered
a religious act, which included frequent off erings to the gods
and required that each worker contributing to its construc-
tion be a good and honest person.
Ziggurats evolved from the ancient Mesopotamian
practice of building temples on platforms resting above the
fl oodplain and providing a solid foundation on the damp soil.
Th ese platforms, or plinths, which date back to the Ubaid Pe-
riod (ca. 6000–3800 b.c.e.), were built of mud brick, as were
most structures in southern Mesopotamia because of the lack
of wood or stone. During the third millennium b.c.e. the
platforms became larger and higher. Eventually the decision
was made to build temples that rose higher above the ground
by constructing them on stepped, or terraced, platforms.
Th is design may have stemmed from the practice of building
on top of older temples and constructions. Th ese platforms
were completely solid throughout and allowed the ancient ar-
chitects, who knew little at the time about how to keep tall,
hollow structures standing, to build taller structures. Th e
Mesopotamian equivalent of Egypt’s pyramids, ziggurats
were common in cities throughout Mesopotamia by approxi-
mately 2000 b.c.e.
In addition to the practical origins of ziggurats, ar-
chaeologists have developed several theories about social or
philosophical underpinnings of ziggurat construction. For
example, some new inhabitants came to Mesopotamia from a
mountainous region in modern-day Iran, and archaeologists
believe that ziggurats may represent a reconstruction of old
mountain temples. Other theories include ziggurats as struc-
tures symbolic of a “cosmic mountain” from creation myths
or as a bridge between the earth and heaven. Th is last theory
is partly attributable to the ancient Tower of Babel described
in the biblical book of Genesis, in which builders proclaim
they will build a tower to “reach unto heaven.” Th ere is little
doubt that ziggurats were potent symbols. For example, some
researchers theorize that trees and gardens were planted on
ziggurats to make them represent a mountain that was vis-
ited by God and was meant to be climbed by the priests for
ceremonial worship.
A typical ziggurat construction included a square or
rectangular base, with the most common sizes being around
164 by 164 feet or 131 by 164 feet. Archaeologists also esti-
mate that ziggurats were oft en 150 feet or higher, such as
the one built over an older structure by Nebuchadnezzar II
(ca. 605–561 b.c.e.), which had seven terraces, stood 231 feet
high, and remains standing at 172 feet. One of the best-pre-
served ziggurats comes from the city of Ur in what is now
Iraq. It had a base of 150 by 200 feet and reached a height of
approximately 75 feet. Th e outer walls of early ziggurats sel-
dom included architectural decoration such as moldings and
cornices. Instead, the occasional adornment consisted only
of depressions in or projections of brick that were alternately
curved and rectilinear.
To allow people to ascend to the tops of ziggurats, about
half the structures included stairs or a spiral ramp or path
leading to each successive level, or concentric platform. Th e
rest have no visible means of ascent. Th e temple towers were
built with sloping walls believed to have been planted with
trees or shrubs to make gardens. In addition, the Mesopota-
mians incorporated a unique technique that made normally
straight, horizontal lines in buildings slightly curved, or con-
vex, which made the overall structure seem soft er or le ss r ig id ,
especially when viewed from a distance. Th ey were so accom-
plished at this technique that the human eye cannot easily
discern the curve. Ziggurats were a prominent construction
in Mesopotamia until around 500 b.c.e. and stretched from
Babylonia in the south to Assyria in the north.
A notable ziggurat is the Choga Zanbil ziggurat, which
rivaled the pyramids of Egypt in character and dimensions.
It was built at the city of Dur-Untash by King Untash-Gal
around 1250 b.c.e. Th e complex included three temples or
places of worship and a number of courtyards that were
paved with bricks. Glazed, kiln-fi red bricks that gave off a
metallic glimmer of blue and green extensively covered the
ziggurat’s walls. Th e design of ziggurat and temple included
ivory mosaics and wooden doors decorated with opaque
glass mosaics. In its current state the ziggurat towers 82 feetarchitecture: The Middle East 61