above the plain; it is believed to have been 170 feet tall when
fi rst built.
Because it was restored at a much later date by King Na-
bonidus (r. 556–539 b.c.e.), one of the best-preserved ziggu-
rats found in Mesopotamia was one built at the city of Ur by
Ur-Nammu (ca. 2112–2095 b.c.e.). Constructed to honor the
moon god , Na n na , it cont a i ned t h ree st ages, or plat for ms. Th e
fi rst rectangular platform measured approximately 205 by
141 feet. Th e entire ziggurat has been partially reconstructed
to a height of about 36 feet. Th e structure’s core was of mud
bricks—unbaked bricks made of fi ne straw and clay and dried
in the sun—which were then surrounded with more water-
resistant baked bricks made of clay in a compressed mold.
As was the tradition, almost all of these baked bricks were
stamped with the name of the ruler, in this case Ur-Nammu.
Th e exterior bricks were inclined to form a slope and included
regularly spaced, fl at buttresses (supports). Th e exterior walls
on this ziggurat also included “weeper holes,” which were
small gaps between the bricks that allowed moisture to evap-
orate from inside the structure. Vertical mud-brick drains
were also built on the ziggurat’s sides to drain rainwater. Th e
ziggurat included three converging ramps in the fi rst stage
and a central stairway to the second stage. Th e access to the
third stage is unknown, but it was probably another central
staircase.
TEMPLES
Although archaeologists have no concrete evidence that a
temple sat on top of the ziggurat at Ur, they know many zig-
gurats did serve as the base for temple buildings. Temples
were also built on platforms or at ground level. One of the
earliest known temples is a small square building uncovered
at Eridu that dates back to ca. 5500 b.c.e. In addition to an of-
fering table, it includes a niche and platform, most likely the
resting place of a religious statue.
Most of the temples on top of ziggurats from the fi rst
period of Mesopotamian civilization, called the Protolit-
erate Period (ca. 3800–3000 b.c.e.), have been lost to time.
Archaeologists have judged their appearance primarily on
facade ornaments discovered at places such as Tell el-Ubaid,
the ancient site that gave its name to the Ubaid Period. Most
of the early ziggurat temples were small, single-roomed
shrines, some measuring 80 by 40 feet. Th e ziggurat temples,
like the bases, were made of mud brick and included some
ornamentation, such as alternating buttresses and recesses
built into the outside walls. Eventually they were designed
with a long central sanctuary and various chamber rooms
fl anking both sides.
A good example of Protoliterate architecture is the White
Temple (ca. 3200 b.c.e.) that sat atop the 40-foot-tall Anu Zig-
gurat at Uruk, which was named aft er the primary god, Anu.
Th e temple itself measured 61 by 16 feet, indicating that it was
meant for use by a small number of people, such as priests and
perhaps certain important personages. Th e outer walls were
whitewashed and contained niches and buttresses typical of
the temple architecture at that time. Th e building contained a
cella, or central hall, and a stepped altar.
Th e temples’ corners typically faced the cardinal points
of north, south, east, and west, unlike the Egyptian pyramids,
whose sides face the cardinal points. Although these began as
modest structures, over time they were better planned and
contained more intricate architectural designs. For example,
during the Early Dynastic Period (ca. 3000–2350 b.c.e.) in-
terior wall ornaments included a patterned mosaic of terra-
cotta cones within the walls with the exposed ends covered
in bronze or brightly colored. A temple in Uruk included
similarly decorated brick columns, some of which were free
standing. Facade ornaments were commonly used to break
the uniformity of the outer brick walls. Th ese include wooden
columns covered in patterned mosaic stone or shell, copper-
sheathed bands with decorations, and copper-covered lintels
with designs, such as animals. In the Dynastic Period several
of the most important temples were patterned aft er what is
called a temple oval, an immense oval platform with a sepa-
rate wall built around the platform and temple.
During the Neo-Sumerian Period (ca. 2100–2000 b.c.e.)
many temples were built in the form of the broad-cella. In this
architectural design the broad and shallow central hall could
be approached only through a series of rooms or courts and
surrounding halls. Th ese courts and halls were typically laid
in various fl oor plans designed to hinder access to the altar
or statue of a god. Sometimes spaces were arranged around
an axis that helped ensure that most worshippers glimpsed
the deifi ed ruler only from afar. Few, if any, of the common
people could enter the main hall and approach the statue of
the local deity.PALACES
While much is known about the early ziggurats, consider-
ably less is known concerning the early Sumerian palaces
and other secular buildings. Archaeologists have discovered
that as far back as the third millennium b.c.e. Mesopotamian
notables lived in large complexes that oft en included lavish
decorations. A Mesopotamian palace complex found at Ur
included numerous courtyards and sanctuaries, a banquet
hall, and burial chambers. Th ese complexes were associated
with the temples and shrines of the times and may have in-
cluded facilities for workshops and storehouses.
Like most structures in southern Mesopotamia, the pal-
aces were built out of mud brick and on platforms. Some were
eventually built atop ziggurats. While little has been found
to shed light on the earliest Mesopotamian palaces, archaeo-
logical excavations at Kish, today the site of Tall al-Uhaimer
in Iraq, have shown that the buildings dating back to before
2000 b.c.e. included brick columns and simple, austere fa-
cades. Most palaces and other buildings probably had fl at
roofs supported by the trunks of palm trees. Nevertheless,
architectural historians believe the ancient Sumerians also
knew how to make a simplifi ed support system known as the
corbelled arch and corbelled vaulting. Th e arch form uses62 architecture: The Middle East