teaching was continued and changed by the next heads of his school, Porphyry and
Iamblichus. Both opened Neoplatonism to the multifarious forms of contemporary
paganism, which were regarded as appropriate for those uninitiated in Neoplatonic
ideas. However, they were revolted by certain practices, as for example Porphyry was
by animal sacrifices.
Neoplatonists became intellectual champions of paganism; hence Porphyry wrote
a treatise against the Christians, which shows a good knowledge of their ideas.
Iamblichus legitimized rituals and theurgical practices of all kind, so as to integrate
multifarious expressions of religion which had been tagged as pagan by Christian
polemicists and which had only in part been regarded as legitimate by the traditional
elites. Numerous holy men with a Neoplatonic background rivaled Christian saints
by teaching and by doing wonders.
With all its internal differences Christianity was much less inclusive and multi-
farious than paganism (see chapter 28). The “Old” and the consolidating New
Testament served as a common text fundamental in the eyes of all Christians, and
there were a growing number of tenets considered as essential by a majority, but
which could not be enforced in all communities. Moreover, the local churches were
marked by a strong hierarchy with a bishop as the local leader. Many were connected
to each other by intense communication; synods became ever more important as
instruments for the creation of a dogmatic and organizational consensus among
believers from different towns. This could not prevent heresies, but the clashes were
less explosive than later, because the contending groups were not able to rely on
public authorities to resolve their problems.
In spite of internal quarrels and external pressure Christianity became ever
stronger. Valerian’s (253 – 60) second edict gives an impression of Christian influ-
ence even within the traditional elite, because it presupposed senators and equites
among the Christians. In the forty years of peace after his demise the Christians
grew in number; large churches were erected. A general stabilization of what was to
become “the church” of the empire is clearly discernible.
As distinct from pagan literature, Christian literature flourished during that time;
a general intensification of theological reflection took place. Hippolytus (first half
of the third century) drew up a refutation of all heresies, which he denounced as
being based on pagan traditions. Theological thinkers such as Clement of Alexandria
(c. 200), Origen (c. 185–253), who was tortured under Decius, and Lucian of Antioch
(martyred 312) undertook to speak about Christianity in a language based on Greek
philosophy. This philosophy was mainly Neoplatonist in character. Therefore pagans
and Christians came closer to each other on the intellectual level. Not surprisingly,
Christian thinkers were able to impress pagans; Origen, for instance, was invited to
several talks by members of the elite and even wrote a letter to Philip the Arab (244 – 9;
Eus. HE6.19.15; 21.3– 4; 36.3).
In the wake of Tertullian (c. 200), Latin became ever more important as a lan-
guage of theology, in particular thanks to the contributions of Cyprian (martyred
258). But philosophical terminology was used to a lesser degree than in Greek authors.
The anti-Christian stance of some emperors triggered a problem within
Christianity, which perhaps was even more menacing than the imperial measures
98 Hartmut Leppin