in themselves. The Christian communities became divided between the confessors,
who had withstood the pressure of the government and had not perpetrated a
sacrifice, and those who had given way to force, the so-called lapsi(fallen). Many
of them, willing to do penance, yearned for forgiveness. Others were not even con-
vinced that they had done anything wrong by making what were minor concessions
in their eyes.
Yet many of the confessors scorned all those who had “fallen” as traitors, who
should not be received back into church. Disputes must have broken out in many
towns. The conflicts in Carthage (Cyprianus, Epist.44 –55, esp. 55) and Rome (Eus.
HE6.42– 45) are very well documented. In Carthage, bishop Cyprian seems to have
managed to reintegrate the lapsiafter long conflicts, on condition that they did penance
for their sins (cf. his De lapsis). In Rome though, a minority group, led by Novatian,
completely separated from the other Christians and had him consecrated bishop; this
schism lasted many decades. The conflicts over the readmission of the lapsishould
not be seen in political or tactical terms only. They rather had a deep theological
impact, concerning the question of the role of penance, which was central to
Christian ethics and justified the return of the lapsi. Therefore those arguments
intensified the theological debates.
Another significant conflict centered on Paul of Samosata. The bishop of Antioch
(since 260) was deposed in 268 by a synod for dogmatic reasons – his doctrine on
the human nature of Christ was rejected – and for his lifestyle, which reminded his
brethren of the habits of the administrative elite. This resolution was made known
to Rome, Alexandria, and other sees. All the same Paul remained in office until
Aurelian’s victory over Palmyra in 272, when he was forced to leave the “building
of the church” (Eus. HE7.29–30). Political conflicts, local rivalry, and theological
debates converged in this quarrel. Interestingly, the pagan emperor was accepted
as an arbitrator in an argument which concerned Christians only: Aurelian had been
asked to decide the dispute over the ecclesiastical buildings.
The measures of Diocletian against Christians caused similar arguments to those
raised by earlier persecutions: disputes about the treatments of those who had given
in to the authorities. In Africa these tensions escalated when, about 312, Caecilian
was consecrated bishop of Carthage. One of his three consecrators was charged with
having been a so-called traditor, that is, of having handed over Christian books to
the authorities. His enemies deposed Caecilian, making bishop first a certain Maiorian
and, after his untimely death, Donatus, from whom his adherents received the name
of Donatists.
Another dispute divided the eastern part of the empire: in Alexandria, the priest
Arius came into conflict with his bishop, Alexander, about dogmatic issues, but per-
haps also about the priest’s right to preach. As it seems, Arius contended that there
was a moment at the beginning of the world when Christ did not exist, whereas
Alexander denied this. Many bishops of the east, such as Eusebius of Nicomedia,
were dragged into the affair, perhaps not completely against their wills, because the
disagreement with his priest promised to weaken the powerful bishop of Alexandria.
This conflict was deepened by another dispute, the so-called Melitian schism, which
again had been caused by disputes over the treatment of traitors during the
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