CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Ginger has been reported to contain
0.25–3.3% (usually 1–3%) volatile oil; pun-
gent principles (gingerols and shogaols);1–5
glycosides of geraniol and gingerdiol;6,7about
6–8% lipids composed of triglycerides, phos-
phatidic acid, lecithins, free fatty acids (lauric,
palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, etc.), ginger-
glycolipids,^8 and others;^9 protein (ca. 9%);
starch (up to 50%); vitamins (especially niacin
and A); minerals; amino acids; gingesulfonic
acid,^8 resins; and others (JIANGSU;MARSH;RO-
SENGARTEN; STAHL).^10 New diarylheptanoids
were recently isolated from Chinese ginger.^11
Newly reported 1-dehydrogingerdione was
also isolated from ginger.^12
Gingeroilcontainsasitsmajorcomponents
the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons zingiberene
and bisabolene.1–3Other sesquiterpene hydro-
carbons and alcohols present includear-cur-
cumene,b-sesquiphellandrene,sesquithujene,
zingiberol, zingiberenol, cis-sesquisabinene
hydrate, andcis- andtrans-b-sesquiphellan-
drol.1,3,13–15It also contains monoterpene hy-
drocarbons, alcohols, and aldehydes (e.g., phe-
llandrene, camphene, geranial, neral, linalool,
andd-borneol),3,10,13methylheptenone, nonyl
aldehyde; gingediacetate and gingerol;^16 and
others^17 (GUENTHER;JIANGSU).
Ginger oleoresin contains mainly the pun-
gentprinciplesgingerolsandshogaolsaswellas
zingerone.1,2,5 Shogaols and zingerones
are dehydration and degradation products, re-
spectively, of gingerols; the latter have been
reported to constitute about 33% of a freshly
prepared oleoresin.^3 Shogaols have recently
beenfoundtobetwiceaspungentasgingerols.^4
The pungency of ginger oleoresin is lost on
prolonged contact with alkalis (ARCTANDER).
A protease has been isolated from fresh
ginger; yield of the crude enzyme was 2.26%
from the fresh rhizome.^18
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES
Ginger extracts are reported to exhibit numer-
ous pharmacological properties, including
stimulating the vasomotor and respiratory
centers of anesthetized cats as well as direct
heart stimulation;^7 lowering of serum and
hepatic cholesterol in rats previously fed cho-
lesterol;^19 and killing vaginal trichomonadsin
vitro(JIANGSU). Ginger also has carminative
properties.
Dried ethanol and acetone extracts of fresh
rhizome are given orally significantly inhib-
ited gastric secretion of induced acute stress in
rats, producing an antiulcer effect.^20 The anti-
ulcer effect may also be mediated through
the inhibitory effect of ginger onHelicobacter
pylori.^21
Ginger (dried) has been the subject of
several clinical trials to assess efficacy in
motion sickness, early pregnancy, and post-
operative nausea and vomiting with positive
results.22–26Its antiemetic effect is attributed
to an effect on gastric activity rather than a
CNS mechanism, characteristic of conven-
tional antimotion sickness drugs.^27 The in-
volvement of 5-HT 3 receptor blocking activity
has been recently reported.25,28,29Powdered
ginger root (250 mg q.i.d.) over 4 days was
better than placebo in diminishing or elimi-
nating symptoms of hyperemesis gravidar-
um.^30 The clinical efficacy of ginger as
an antiemetic has been reviewed.^31 In vivo
studies in animal models have also been
published.32,33
Fresh ginger (juice, aqueous extract, in
poultice or sliced form) has been reported
highly effective in China in the clinical
treatment of rheumatism, acute bacterial
dysentery, malaria, and orchitis (inflammation
of the testicles) (JIANGSU). Numerous studies
have been published on the anti-inflammatory
effects of ginger in human patients and
animal models.34–36Neuroprotective effects
involving anti-inflammatory mechanisms have
also been reported for ginger.37,38The anti-
inflammatory effect appears to be mediated
by mechanisms involving the inhibition of
different mediators of inflammation, for
example, TNF-a, COX-2, and leukotriene
inhibition.39–46The anti-inflammatory effects
of ginger have been reviewed.^47
In vitroand in vivoantioxidant, cancer
chemoprevention, and radiprotective activitiesGinger 321