274 ■ CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE
of biogeochemical processes. However, direct measurements of the eff ects of
urbanization on carbon fl uxes are extremely limited. In this paper, we discuss a
strategy to quantify urban carbon signatures (spatial and temporal changes in
fl uxes) through measurements that can more eff ectively aid urban carbon emis-
sions reduction scenarios and predictive modeling. We start by articulating an
integrated framework that identifi es the mechanisms and interactions that link
urban patterns to carbon fl uxes along gradients of urbanization. Building on a
synthesis of the current observational studies in major U.S. metropolitan areas,
we develop formal hypotheses on how alternative development patterns (that
is, centralized versus sprawling) produce diff erent carbon signatures and how
these signatures may in turn infl uence patterns of urbanization. Finally, we
discuss the fusion of observations, scenarios, and models for strategic carbon
assessments.
Energy Consumption and CO 2 Emissions in Urban Counties in the
United States with a Case Study of the New York Metropolitan Area
Lily Parshall, Stephen A. Hammer, and Kevin Gurney
Urban areas are setting quantitative, time-bound targets for emissions reduc-
tions within their territories; designing local policies to encourage shift s
toward cleaner energy supply, higher energy effi ciency, and transit-oriented
development; and exploring ways to participate in local carbon markets. Th ese
eff orts require systematic estimates of energy consumption and emissions pre-
sented in a format and at a spatial resolution relevant for local governance. Th e
Vulcan data product off ers the type of high-resolution, spatial data on energy
consumption and CO 2 emissions needed to create a consistent inventory for
all localities in the continental United States. We use Vulcan to analyze pat-
terns of direct fuel consumption for on-road transportation and in buildings
and industry in urban counties. We include a case study of the New York City
Metropolitan Area.
Mitigating Urban Heat Island Effect by Urban Design: Forms and
Materials
Julien Bouyer, Marjorie Musy, Yuan Huang, and Khaled Athamena
Th is paper provides a synthesis of three complementary research works
that contribute to the same objective: proposing solutions to reduce build-
ing energy consumption by modifying local climate. Th e fi rst work explores
urban forms: It proposes methods to describe them and analyze the climatic
performances of classifi ed urban forms. Th e second work focuses on one
parameter of direct relevance to urban heat island phenomenon: the surface