and Galway, and in 1854 a professor of Irish History and Archaeology was
appointed at the Cardinal Newman’s Catholic University in Dublin (Cooney
1996: 155; Waddell 2005: 114–15). In the Austro-Hungarian Empire chairs
were established in Vienna (1849) and Prague (1850). TheWrst was created for
the Slovak archaeologist specializing in the Slavs, Jan Kolla ́r (1793–1852), and
the second for the Czech Vocel (Sklena ́r 1983: 83). A course on ‘Archaeology
and arts of the Middle Ages’ was also organized in the Parisian E ́cole de
Chartes in 1847 (Thirion 1997). In Spain, an institution set up in the image of
the E ́cole, the Escuela Superior de Diploma ́tica (Higher School of Diplomacy
(i.e. Documents)), opened in 1856, and archaeology was taught in it from the
start (Peiro ́ Martı ́n & Pasamar Alzuria 1996). The French model was not
apparently followed in Britain. AWrst chair of archaeology, the Disney Chair,
was created in Cambridge in 1851, but its occupant, the Reverend John
Marsden (1803–70), has been described as a little known clergyman with
some interests in antiquity (Wiseman 1992: 83–4).
In the mid 1800s instruction in archaeology mainly took place in univer-
sities under the umbrella of a wide range of collateral disciplines: history,
architecture, philology, medicine, the natural sciences, geography, and, in-
creasingly, anthropology. In Spain, for example, in addition to being taught in
the Higher School of Diplomacy, instruction concerning Islamic archaeology
was the responsibility of the chairs of Arabic language at the Universities of
Madrid (chair created in 1843 for Pascual Gayangos (Pascual de Gayangos y
Arce, 1809–97)) and Granada (1846, Jose ́Moreno Nieto (1825–82)) (Dı ́az-
Andreu 1996: 70). As academic disciplines, philology and history were much
more successful in gaining acceptance than archaeology. The greater sophis-
tication achieved in the analysis of written sources compared to the study of
the material remains of the past meant that the former method was still
considered preferable. This accounts for the relatively high number of
chairs of ancient and medieval history—and not of classical or medieval
archaeology—in countries such as France and Germany at the beginning of
the twentieth century (Keylor 1975: 219).
The number of diVerent jobs mentioned in the paragraphs above may,
however, be misleading if we take it as a direct measure of the number of
professionals in the discipline. In this period, as would be the case later on, it
was not uncommon that a series of new professional posts were occupied by
the same person. The Danish archaeologist Worsaae exempliWes this. He was
Inspector and later Director for the Conservation of Antiquarian Monu-
ments from the late 1840s, director of the Royal Collections at the Rosenborg
castle from 1857 to 1885, and museum director at the Oldnordisk Museum
(the Museum of Northern Antiquities) from 1866. He also lectured in
prehistoric archaeology at Copenhagen University, although his role as a
Liberal Revolutions (c. 1820–1860) 361