gated older culture, and this period of mass expansion of schooling was not the
time when the main intellectual innovations took place.
- In France, the conservative monarchy following the 1815 restoration broke into
factions because of divergence between ultramontane Catholics and the adminis-
trators of the state bureaucracy, especially over educational policy; the result was
a series of liberalizing and conservatizing swings leading up to the Orleanist
revolution of 1830. Again in 1860s, splits between Catholic traditionalists and
statist officials undermined conservative control; in this case the dominance of the
secularistic officials motivated the Catholics to join the anti-monarchist forces in
pushing for liberalized rights (CMH, 1902–1911: 10:40–100; 11:295–297, 469–
474).
- The first non-religious work was printed in Japan in 1591. Religious texts contin-
ued to be major items on the market until 1680–1700 (Nosco, 1990: 26). This
was much the same time the transition occurred in European publishing.
- Tokyo University was founded in 1877 with European teachers. In 1893 chairs
were opened to Japanese professors and the Europeans were gradually replaced.
The same model developed elsewhere: Waseda University originated in 1882;
Kyoto University, the second imperial foundation, was established 1897 (EP, 1967:
252–253; Kitagawa, 1987: 305). Sources on post-Meiji intellectual life (EP, 1967;
Kitagawa, 1987, 1990; Dilworth, 1989; Ketelaar, 1990; Najita and Scheiner, 1978;
Tsunoda, de Bary, and Keene, 1958; Blacker, 1964; Gluck, 1985; Havens, 1970;
Nishitani, 1982).
- See Chapter 8, Coda: “Are Idea Imports a Substitute for Creativity?”
- The attack on Christianity as an alien philosophy could be directed toward other
contemporary aims as well. Inouye Enryo, a True Pure Land priest, in 1887–1890
attacked Christianity as irrational and irreconcilable with science; playing to the
prestige of positivism, he argued that Buddhist religion is in greater harmony with
rationality (Kitagawa, 1990: 230).
- In other words, the network connection comes first. It was apparently via Suzuki
that Zen’s appeal to the philosophical networks of the West came home to Nishida
and stimulated his own creativity.
- The central experience consists in “acts of consciousness,” which are also the
“place of nothingness,” and the “historically formative act” (quoted in Dilworth,
1989: 149). Paralleling Buddhist dialectics is the puzzle in Aristotelean logic of
how the individual can be reached by specification of the universal; a principium
individuationis, Nishida suggests, points beyond itself to the ultimate emptiness of
the things of conventional experience. A further resource is Kant’s unity of tran-
scendental apperception, which Nishida takes as referring to a place where subject
and object are united (Nishitani, 1982; xxxi). Nishida synthesizes a selection of
Western concepts with a position rather like that of Nagarjuna and Dharmakirti:
there is neither God/transcendence beyond phenomena nor substance to the phe-
nomena themselves. Samsara is sunyata; the world is ultimate reality, as Emptiness.
- In the 1890s Nakae Chomin attempted to revive Sorai’s naturalism as the explicit
Japanese counterpart of Bentham’s Utilitarianism (Najita, 1987: 35). Thereafter
Notes to Pages 369–376^ •^981
