the Kyoto school did not reign in Japanese philosophy without opposition. For a
period in the 1920s there were some advocates of Marxism, but no indigenous
creativity came from this.8. Islam, Judaism, Christendom
- The strong ÀAbbasid caliphate lasted long enough so that the period of redaction
of hadith was closed before Islam began to fragment politically. Similarly, Catholic
and Greek Christianity established its canon during the height of the Roman
Empire, and its adoption as state religion allowed heterodox variants to be forcibly
excluded. - The conflict between religious orthodoxy and independent intellectual concerns is
one, but not the only, route to epistemology. Long-term processes in the develop-
ment of epistemology and logic will be considered more fully in Chapter 15. - One point of substantive difference that was argued, however, was the unity of
God, upheld by the Muslim theologians against Zoroastrian and Manichaean
dualists. Even here Muslim theologians were more interested in turning the argu-
ment against anthropomorphists in their own ranks. A comparison with China
and India implies that multi-religious competition in itself does not lead to proofs
of the existence and nature of God. See Chapter 15. - It lacked only Muslim Spain, conquered between 711 and 759, which broke free
in the name of the Umayyad caliphate, which had been overthrown by the ÀAb-
basids in the civil war of 744–750. General sources for Islamic political, religious
and social history (Hodgson, 1974; Lapidus, 1988; McEvedy, 1961; Humphreys
1991). - This account of philosophers and biographical data draws generally on numerous
sources (Watt, 1973, 1985; Fakhry, 1983; Hodgson, 1974; Wolfson, 1976; Rescher,
1964; de Boer, 1903; individual essays in DSB, 1981, and EP, 1967). I have
included scientists and mathematicians in the networks, since their pattern is
intimately connected with that of the philosophers. The methodology of ranking
philosophers into major, secondary, and minor figures is the same as that used in
Chapter 2. Islamic philosophers are ranked according to the relative amount of
reference to them in the cited sources. Jewish philosophers are ranked in relation
to one another, based on Sirat (1985); Husik (1969); Guttman (1933); Pines
(1967); EP (1967). These histories are all recent and largely European; earlier
historical accounts on which they draw include Ibn al-Nadim (ca. 990), al-Baqillani
(1000), al-Baghdadi (1030), al-Ghazali (1090), al-Sharastani (1130), Maimonides
(1190), and Ibn Khaldun (1380). - Intellectual historians have tended to ascribe most kalamite positions to foreign
influences (summarized in Wolfson, 1976: 58–79) and to downplay indigenous
lines of development. The principal MuÀtazilite arguments, however, were formed
before 830, and it was in the next two generations that most of the translation of
Greek texts took place. The early MuÀtazilites knew something of the categories
of Aristotelean logic, which seem to have come from secondhand accounts of
982 •^ Notes to Pages 389–398