change occurs, hence the appearance of conspicuous change or
revolution (Mao,1954b: 48).
The dialectical process of the development of things dictates that
things are constantly transforming themselves from the first to the
second state of motion. However, it is through the second stage that
the contradiction is resolved. The understanding of this process,
Mao emphasized, will make it clear that a class-based society cannot
avoid revolutions and revolutionary wars, because without them,
it would be impossible to achieve any leap in social development
and overthrow the reactionary ruling classes, and therefore impossible
for the people to win political power (Mao1954b: 43–49).
Mao’s leadership philosophy of the dialectics of contradiction was
reflected aplenty in his leadership practice. During China’s revolution-
ary period (1921–1949), Mao’s theory of contradictions reflected,
justified, and served his advocacy of the revolutionary transformation
of China. After the establishment of the PRC, class struggle remained
a prominent theme in all major mass movements launched by Mao,
including the ‘‘Three-Anti,’’ and ‘‘Five-Anti’’ campaigns^1 in the early
1950s and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution from 1966 to
- Mao believed that in any class society, times of relative equilib-
rium are but necessary preparation for times of open antagonism and
revolution when the contradiction between the two principal classes
reaches the critical point (Li, 1994 ). Oksenberg ( 1977 : 88) defined
Mao’s ‘‘pattern of rule’’ as ‘‘the alternation between a period of social
ferment, mass mobilization, unleashed advance and conflict on the
one hand, and a period of consolidation, institutionalization, planned
advance and reconciliation on the other.’’ Oksenberg ( 1977 ) offered
the following illustrations.
The initial period of harmony and the economic rehabilitation of
the PRC was followed by the ‘‘Three-Anti,’’ and ‘‘Five-Anti’’ cam-
paigns in urban China and the acceleration and completion of land
reforms in rural China in 1950–1952. The period from mid-1952
through mid-1955 was characterized by another time of relative equi-
librium involving consolidation and institution-building. This was
followed by the 1955–1956 collectivization campaign in agriculture,
the nationalization of industrial and commercial enterprises, and the
severe su-fan-yun-dong (rectification movement) in government
organs. After another period of relative quietude (1956–1957), the
upsurge of the Great Leap Forward of 1958–1960 ensued. Pockets
Leadership theories and practices of Mao and Deng 213