Bass and Avolio’s Full-Range Leadership Model (FRLM) (Bass 1988, 1999; Avolio
and Bass 2004a; Bass and Avolio 2008) and is included in the model to measure
performance at an individual level. The DSB (Discretionary Service Behaviour)
factor was developed by (Blancero and Johnson 1997, 2001) and operationalised
by Simons and Roberson (2003) and is included in this research as a measure of
performance at the group level (following Simons and Roberson DSB is measured
using respondents’ perceptions of co-worker performance). Lastly, the Service
Quality factor was developed specifically for this research as an exploratory factor
designed to measure service quality based on employees’ responses regarding the
frequency of selected service failures.
Both Job Performance (JP) and Discretionary Service Behaviour (DSB) measure
employees’ job performance. Job Performance (JP) is developed from the
research narratives that posit extra effort as a measure of motivated employees
(e.g. Georgopoulos et al. 1957: 345) and leadership theory where extra effort is
one outcome of transformational leadership (e.g. Bass and Avolio 2008; Limsila
and Ogunlana 2008: 167). By employing these two measures, the research is
specifically attempting to evaluate the influence of motivational leadership on
employee performance. By using JP as a self-assessment and DSB as a peer-
assessment, it is hoped that any self-reporting bias can be accounted for (or even
that the existence of inflated self-assessment scores can be refuted).
Job Performance (individual-level outcome)
At the heart of Bass’s theory of transformational leadership is the proposal that
transformational leaders inspire and motivate their subordinates to expend ‘extra
effort’ and ‘perform beyond expectations’ (Bass 1985; Bass and Riggio 2006, see
especially Ch 4). Performance Beyond Expectations is measured using a three-
item factor called Extra Effort in the Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ;
Avolio and Bass 2004a). The MLQ is, however, a proprietary survey instrument
and, accordingly, an alternative four-item measure of job performance was
developed for this research by drawing out the key components of ‘extra effort’
from the published literature on Bass’s transformational leadership theory (Bass
1988; Bass and Avolio 1990a; Bass 1990a; Bass and Riggio 2006)