nological differentiation of the z:a ̄hir as historia, “literal,” and
the ba ̄t:in as allegoria, “symbolic,” the S:u ̄f ̄ı tafs ̄ır of Sahl
al-Tustar ̄ı (d. 896) exemplifies this trend in the earliest peri-
od. No attempt is made in this work, however, to provide
an overall allegorical interpretation; rather, it takes isolated
passages from the text of scripture and views them in light
of mystical experience. The order of scripture is followed in
al-Tustar ̄ı’s text as it now exists, although the initial compila-
tion may not have followed any such order. About one thou-
sand verses (out of some sixty-two hundred) in the QurDa ̄n
are covered in this manner.
The commentary itself, which is structured piecemeal
and reads in a disjointed fashion, contains much more than
straightforward allegorical interpretation: legends of the an-
cient prophets, stories about Muh:ammad, and even some
about the author of the work himself also find their place.
Nor is any overall pursuit of mystical themes to be found;
indeed, its general nature is fragmentary. The esoteric por-
tions of the text are formed around typically S:u ̄f ̄ı medita-
tions on the QurDa ̄n, each taking a key word from the text.
Allegorical interpretation in this case becomes as much a pro-
cess of thematic association as one of textual commentary.
CONSOLIDATION OF CLASSICAL TAFS ̄IR. It is with the fourth
century AH (tenth century CE) that true works of tafs ̄ır
emerge, combining in various ways the five formative ele-
ments I have described above. The first landmark of this type
of tafs ̄ır is that of al-T:abar ̄ı, Ja ̄miE al-baya ̄n Ean taDw ̄ıl a ̄y
al-QurDa ̄n, which gathers together in a compendium reports
from earlier authorities dealing with most aspects of the
QurDa ̄n. Verse-by-verse analysis is provided, each detailed
with virtually every major interpretational trend (except sec-
tarian). The material supplied in this manner is given in its
full form, complete with the chains of transmitters for each
item of information to lend the weight of tradition to each
statement. This type of work is classically called tafs ̄ır
bi-al-maDthu ̄r (“interpretation by tradition”), as opposed to
tafs ̄ır bi-al-raDy (“interpretation by opinion”), but the catego-
ries are misleading. Al-T:abar ̄ı provides his own personal in-
terpretation, both implicitly by his editorial selection of ma-
terial and explicitly by stating his opinion where different
trends of interpretation exist, sometimes even going against
the entire thrust of tradition and providing his own point of
view; in this sense, this work, too, is tafs ̄ır bi-al-raDy.
In the centuries after al-T:abar ̄ı, tafs ̄ır as an activity in-
creased and became more and more sophisticated and, in
some cases, reached voluminous quantities. Al-Ma ̄tur ̄ıd ̄ı,
Abu ̄ al-Layth al-Samarqand ̄ı (d. 983?), al-ThaElab ̄ı
(d. 1035), and al-Wa ̄h:id ̄ı (d. 1075) are all prominent people
who in the fourth and fifth centuries AH produced volumes
of tafs ̄ır, sometimes, as in the case of al-Wa ̄h:id ̄ı, in multiple
editions.
Theological concerns begin to make a greater impact
upon tafs ̄ır in this period; it is a trend which culminates in
the production of the most famous QurDa ̄n commentaries in
the Muslim world, those of the rationalist MuEtazil ̄ı
al-Zamakhshar ̄ı (d. 1144), the philosopher Fakhr al-D ̄ın
al-Ra ̄z ̄ı (d. 1209), and the Sunn ̄ı traditionalist al-Bayd:a ̄w ̄ı
(d. sometime between 1286 and 1316). Debates rage among
these authors, and many others, over the central questions
of Islamic theology and the various positions to be found in
the QurDa ̄n. Topics covered include free will and predestina-
tion, the attributes of God, the nature of the QurDa ̄n, the im-
position of the tasks of the law, the nature and extent of the
hereafter, and so forth. The MuEtazil ̄ı al-Zamakhshar ̄ı opts
for interpretation based upon reason in his commentary
Al-kashsha ̄f Ean h:aqa ̄Diq ghawa ̄mid: al-tanz ̄ıl (The unveiler of
the realities of the secrets of the revelation). Apparent contra-
diction between verses of the QurDa ̄n are resolved in favor of
the MuEtazil ̄ı doctrines of the unity and justice of God.
Al-Bayd:a ̄w ̄ı produced an edited version of the text by
al-Zamakhshar ̄ı in his Anwa ̄r al-tanz ̄ıl wa-asra ̄r al-ta’w ̄ıl
(The lights of the revelation and the secrets of the interpreta-
tion), removing in the process most of the MuEtazil ̄ı tenden-
cies and compressing the material into an even more concise
form. Al-Ra ̄z ̄ı’s unfinished tafs ̄ır, Mafa ̄t ̄ıh: al-ghayb (The keys
of the unknown), discusses the QurDa ̄n in terms of a rational-
ist philosophy which for the most part involved a rejection
of the MuEtazil ̄ı position and argued in support of ortho-
doxy. Humans, for al-Ra ̄z ̄ı, are predetermined, and God’s
freedom and power cannot be confined by human ration-
ality.
Encyclopedist tafs ̄ır works in the tradition of al-T:abar ̄ı
also continue with writers such as Ibn Kath ̄ır (d. 1373),
al-Shawka ̄n ̄ı (d. 1839), and al-A ̄lu ̄s ̄ı (d. 1854). The opposite
trend toward distillation reaches its peak, in popular terms,
with the Tafs ̄ır al-Jala ̄layn of Jala ̄l al-D ̄ın al-Suyu ̄t: ̄ı
(d. 1505) and Jala ̄l al-D ̄ın al Mah:all ̄ı (d. 1459).
SPECIALIZATIONS WITHIN CLASSICAL TAFS ̄IR. While the all-
encompassing commentary marks the highlight of exegetical
activity in the classical period, the field of specialized
QurDa ̄nic sciences was emerging at the same time, providing
a number of subdisciplines within tafs ̄ır. Some of these are
continuations of the earliest developments; others arise
under new impetuses. General compendia of information on
these sciences arise in the discipline known as Eulu ̄m
al-QurDa ̄n (“the sciences of the QurDa ̄n”), represented by such
works as Nukat al-intis:a ̄r li-naql al-QurDa ̄n (Gems of assis-
tance in the transmission of the QurDa ̄n), by al-Ba ̄qilla ̄n ̄ı
(d. 1012); Al-burha ̄n f ̄ı Eulu ̄m al-QurDa ̄n (The criterion for
the sciences of the QurDa ̄n), by al-Zarkash ̄ı (d. 1391); and
Al-itqa ̄n f ̄ı !ulu ̄m al-QurDa ̄n (The perfection about the sci-
ences of the QurDa ̄n), by al-Suyu ̄t: ̄ı. The topics gathered in
these books are also subjects of separate monographs by a
wide variety of writers; these topics include naskh, abrogation
of legal passages of the QurDa ̄n; asba ̄b al-nuzu ̄l, the occasions
of revelation of individual verses and surahs of the QurDa ̄n;
tajw ̄ıd, recitation of the QurDa ̄n; al-waqf wa-al-ibtida ̄D,
pauses and starts in recitation of the QurDa ̄n; qira ̄Da ̄t, variants
to the text of the QurDa ̄n; marsu ̄m al-khat:t:, the writing of the
QurDa ̄n; ah:ka ̄m, the laws of the QurDa ̄n; ghar ̄ıb, the strange
or difficult words in the QurDa ̄n; iEra ̄b, the grammar of theTAFS ̄IR 8953