QurDa ̄n; qis:as: al-anbiya ̄D, the stories of the prophets; and
iEja ̄z, the inimitability of the QurDa ̄n. As these topics indi-
cate, it is indeed difficult to separate developed tafs ̄ır from
both legal concerns (fiqh) and grammar (nah:w).
SECTARIAN TAFS ̄IR. Parallel to the development of main-
stream Sunn ̄ı Muslim tafs ̄ır in the classical period, works
arose from various other Muslim groups, each pursuing its
own particular sectarian aim and, once again, attempting to
make the QurDa ̄n relevant to its own particular point of view
and situation.
Shiism. For the Sh ̄ıEah in general, the authority of the
imams who descended from EAl ̄ı ibn Ab ̄ı T:a ̄lib was ultimate
in matters of interpretation of the QurDa ̄n. While h:ad ̄ıth tra-
ditions circulated in Sunn ̄ı circles were generally accepted,
this material was often supplemented or corrected on the au-
thority of the imams. The category of the mutasha ̄biha ̄t was
particularly useful to the Sh ̄ıEah, for a number of appropriate
“unclear” verses could be understood as referring to EAl ̄ı and
his family. Such verses were also useful for “discovering” stri-
dently critical comments concerning the early leaders of the
Muslim community, namely Abu ̄ Bakr (d. 634), EUmar, and
EUthma ̄n.
The earliest Ithna ̄ EAshar ̄ıyah or Twelver Sh ̄ıE ̄ıtafs ̄ır in
existence today appears to be the somewhat fragmentary
commentary of EAl ̄ı ibn Ibra ̄h ̄ım al-Qumm ̄ı (d. tenth centu-
ry) with the ascribed title Tafs ̄ır al-QurDa ̄n; other prominent
works include Al-tibya ̄n f ̄ı tafs ̄ır al-QurDa ̄n (The explanation
in interpretation of the QurDa ̄n), by Muh:ammad ibn
al-H:asan al-T:u ̄s ̄ı (d. 1067), and a major commentary which
is a compendium of information comparable to that of
al-T:abar ̄ı, MajmaE al-baya ̄n li-Eulu ̄m al-QurDa ̄n (The collec-
tion of the explanation of the sciences of the QurDa ̄n), by Abu ̄
EAl ̄ı al-T:abars ̄ı (d. 1153 or later).
Allegorical interpretation is favored in Sh ̄ıE ̄ı tafs ̄ır as a
process of looking for the “inner” meaning in many passages.
The special way of applying this method is to find references
to EAl ̄ı and his family, which, of course, serves to promote
Sh ̄ıE ̄ı claims to power and legitimacy. For example, in
al-Qumm ̄ı’s tafs ̄ır, the notion of Islam itself is defined not
simply as submission to God but also as submission to the
authority of the line of imams. The use of textual variation
is also present in some works, although whenever the Sh ̄ıEah
have been powerful in political affairs and fully institutional-
ized, such notions have generally been rejected as anti-status
quo. This was already true to some extent in the eleventh
century but became even more so with the rise of the Safavids
in the sixteenth century. The specific argument occurred
over whether some of the QurDa ̄n had been changed, or even
omitted by EUthma ̄n when he ordered its compilation, in
order to undermine Sh ̄ıE ̄ı claims. Passages referring directly
to EAl ̄ı had been erased, it was suggested. Al-Qumm ̄ı argues,
for example, that there are verses in the QurDa ̄n where “letters
have been replaced by other letters,” and he says that there
are places where “verses contradict what God has sent down”
(that is, they contradict or at least do not support Sh ̄ıE ̄ı be-
liefs). Al-T:abars ̄ı argues, however, that the only change that
has occurred in the QurDa ̄n concerns the overall order of the
text itself and not its contents. One common textual variant
which does receive wide acceptance among Sh ̄ıE ̄ı commenta-
tors concerns the word ummah (“community”), which is be-
lieved to be properly read aDimmah (“leaders”) or imams
(aDimmah being the plural of ima ̄m and having the same
basic consonantal structure as ummah).The Sh ̄ıEah, like the MuEtazilah, looked to the QurDa ̄n
for support of the rationalist theological doctrines that were
a key element of their belief system: free will and the created
QurDa ̄n. Their interpretational method, therefore, is similar
to that employed by al-Zamakhshar ̄ı. The Isma ̄E ̄ıl ̄ıyah like-
wise employed the QurDa ̄n as a reference point for their the-
ologizing; the group’s esoteric leanings, often characterized
as extreme, are not witnessed in many texts but are found,
for example, in the fragmentary Miza ̄j al-tasn ̄ım (The condi-
tion of tasn ̄ım) by Isma ̄E ̄ıl ibn Hibat Alla ̄h (d. 1760). In gen-
eral, the Isma ̄E ̄ıl ̄ı movement sees the outer meaning of the
QurDa ̄n as only the symbol of the true inner meaning. The
imam of the age, who has in him the true, full revelation,
adapts the QurDa ̄n to the spiritual and mental condition of
humanity through interpretation; eventually, people will be
brought to the true and full meaning of the text, which is
essentially the knowledge of the unity of God. Such is the
presupposition with which all Isma ̄E ̄ıl ̄ı tafs ̄ır approaches the
text.
The more recent Baha ̄D ̄ı movement establishes its clear
Islamic heritage through the existence of works of tafs ̄ır writ-
ten in Arabic by Sayyid EAl ̄ı Muh:ammad al-Sh ̄ıra ̄z ̄ı (1819–
1850). Known as the Ba ̄b, or “gate,” he claimed to have initi-
ated a new prophetic cycle and became the focal point of the
movement which developed later as the Baha ̄D ̄ı. Among his
works are commentaries on su ̄rahs 12, 108, and 113 of the
QurDa ̄n. In general these are marked by a spiritualistic inter-
pretation of eschatology, including the notions of paradise,
hell, death, and resurrection, all of which are taken to refer
to the end of the prophetic cycle as well as the end of the
physical world (although the latter is recreated by God in
each prophetic cycle).
Sufism. Directly related to Sh ̄ıE ̄ı tafs ̄ır in general is S:u ̄f ̄ı
interpretation, which provides a mystical speculation upon
the QurDa ̄n. This interpretation usually justifies itself
through reference to mystical activities believed to have been
practiced and supported by Muh:ammad. Sahl al-Tustar ̄ı,
mentioned above, probably represents the earliest example
of this tendency. Abu ̄ EAbd al-Rah:ma ̄n al-Sulam ̄ı (d. 1012)
compiled his H:aqa ̄Diq^ al-tafs ̄ır (The truths of interpretation)
from various S:u ̄f ̄ı authorities and other important personali-
ties. All of the material can be considered allegorical, since
it is devoted to finding the inner meaning of each passage
as it relates to the mystical quest. A typical example is found
in the interpretation of sura 17:1, the classical reference to
Muh:ammad’s “night journey” to heaven, which is taken as
a reference to each mystic’s ascent to the higher levels of con-8954 TAFS ̄IR