course of his investigations, Boutan quickly realized
that successful underwater photography would
depend not only on the encasing of the camera,
but also on the photographer’s ability to overcome
the scarcity of light encountered just a few feet
below the surface. With this in mind, Boutan
engaged the assistance of an electrical engineer to
create submersible lights, inventing a ‘‘flash’’
dependent on magnesium powder. In the late
1920s, using a similar but more advanced lighting
system, the American ichthyologist Dr. William H.
Longley and the photographer Charles Martin took
the first color underwater photographs. While the
magnesium-charged lighting system was prone to
unexpected explosions, almost proving fatal for
Longley, the duo’s underwater images, captured
on Autochrome film, were published in 1927 in the
magazine National Geographic. Throughout the
1930s, such pictures of the underwater world con-
tinued to appear in various publications, increasing
interest in both the oceanic realm and its photo-
graphic representation.
This trend continued with the publications, films,
and lectures of the Austrian diving pioneer and
oceanographer Hans Hass. Some assert that mod-
ern underwater photography began with Haas
when, in 1938, he devised an underwater camera
housing to create a photographic record of his
adventures. Hass continued his aquatic documenta-
tion and, by the early 1950s, he had gained worldwide
recognition, in large part due to his photographical-
ly illustrated text,Diving to Adventure (published
in German in 1947, English in 1951, and French
in 1956).
Another world-famous diver, the French Naval
officer Jacques-Yves Cousteau, also played a for-
mative role in the development of underwater
photography, along with the technical innovator
Harold E. Edgerton. In 1942–1943, along with the
engineer Emile Gagnan, Cousteau devised what
would be patented and marketed as the Aqua-
Lung, the first self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus to be commercially available to the pub-
lic. With the appearance of the Aqua-Lung, recrea-
tional scuba diving became a viable sport and
quickly grew in popularity, due in part to various
publications lauding underwater adventures and
the appeal of the aquatic world.The Silent Sea
(1952), Cousteau’s account of his diving activities
in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, was particu-
larly influential. The book and the subsequent
movie (1956) depicted fantastic underwater images
that intrigued and enthralled a wide audience.
Meanwhile, a generation of underwater photo-
graphers were coming into their own, designing and
crafting camera housings and flashes to be used in
their underwater exploits. In terms of equipment,
underwater photographers were initially limited to
a housing system based on principles similar to
those employed by Louis Boutan. Even today, an
underwater camera housing is basically an alumi-
num or plastic water-tight box that encloses a top-
side camera, securing the camera against the
intrusion of water and the crushing effects of
increased atmospheric pressure. The front of the
housing is equipped with a port, a transparent
glass, or acrylic screen through which the lens
peers. Typically, the housing allows the photo-
grapher to manipulate the camera settings, for
example, adjusting aperture and focus, while more
advanced systems allow for the synchronization of
an electric light source with the camera shutter.
With a properly fitted housing, almost any camera
outfitted with any number of lenses may be used
underwater. Thus, an obvious advantage of hous-
ing systems is the photographer’s ability to use his
or her favorite camera and a variety of lenses under-
water. Yet, camera housings present a number of
problems, as well. First, housing systems are often
bulky and cumbersome both during surface trans-
port and underwater. In addition, they can be quite
complex to operate. Finally, quality housing sys-
tems can be prohibitively expensive. These draw-
backs make underwater camera housing systems
rather impractical for recreational use.
In 1961, an alternative to the housing system
appeared. A joint venture between the Japanese
camera manufacturer Nikon and Jacques Cousteau
produced the world’s first self-contained under-
water camera, marketed in France as the Calypso-
phot (or Calypso). In 1963, Nikon purchased the
rights to the amphibious camera, changing its name
to Nikonos I. Small and compact, the Nikonos
presented an attractive option to large and un-
gainly underwater housing systems. Less expensive,
easier to operate, and able to be used with a num-
ber of different lenses, the Nikonos I (as well as its
four subsequent incarnations) has made under-
water photography feasible for the amateur photo-
grapher. Yet, a potential drawback is that, as a
range finder camera, the Nikonos requires an
accessory viewfinder to compose the picture. This
is not a concern when using a housed single lens
reflex camera, which uses a mirror to allow the
photographer to see exactly what the lens sees.
With a range finder camera, the photographer
looks through a small window adjacent to the
lens, not through the lens itself. For photographs
taken at a distance of several feet or more, this does
not cause a major problem. Yet, as the subject getsUNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY