448 Lisbon
by such famous painters as BOTTICELLI, his student
GHIRLANDAIO, and even Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519).
Further reading:Megan Holmes, Fra Filippo Lippi
the Carmelite Painter(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
Press, 1999); Jeffrey Ruda, Fra Filippo Lippi: Life and
Work with a Complete Catalogue (London: Phaidon,
1993).
Lisbon(Ulixbone, al-Ushbuna) Lisbon is the major
city and capital of PORTUGAL. Originally founded by the
Phoenicians, the later Roman city was conquered by the
Suevi in 468; but later the VISIGOTHSmade it part of their
realm. In 717 the ARABSconquered the town and changed
its name from Felicitas Julia to al-Ushbuna; this became
Lishbona or Lisbon. Muslim rule lasted until the middle
of the 12th century. In 1147 Lisbon was captured by
a Portuguese army and fleet, English and Scandinavian
crusaders. The city then became a prosperous commercial
center, harboring most of the TRADE of the western
part of the Iberian Peninsula. In 1256 King Alfonso III
(r. 1248–79) moved his capital to Lisbon. In 1290 a uni-
versity was founded, but in 1357 it was transferred to
Coimbra. King John I (r. 1385–1433) in 1385 defeated
the Castilians to establish a separate kingdom. During
the prosperous 15th century, the city became the base of
Portugal’s imperial expansion.
See alsoASTURIAS-LEÓN,KINGDOM OF;HENRY“THE
NAVIGATOR”.
Further reading: Charles Wendell David, ed., De
expugnatione Lyxbonensi: The Conquest of Lisbon (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1936); Paul Buck, Lis-
bon: A Cultural and Literary Companion(New York: Inter-
link Books, 2002); John Laidlar, ed., Lisbon (Santa
Barbara: Clio Press, 1997).
litany Greek litaneia and Latin litania both mean
“entreat,” “request,” or “supplication.” Litany mainly des-
ignates petitioning PRAYERby a cleric with responses by
the laity. It can include the processions during which lita-
nies were chanted. Litany was originally a pre-Christian
form of prayer, perhaps from ANTIOCH, consisting of a
series of requests or invocation pronounced by a deacon
or a cantor, to which participants added a refrain “Kyrie
eleison” or “Domine miserere” (Lord, have mercy). It
probably entered Christian worship in the East in the
fourth century. Pope Gelasius I (r. 492–496) promoted
liturgical practice and its use in the MASS. Such formula-
ries later formed the basis of much private prayer and the
litany of the saints. This wider use of the litany of the
saints attested to the growth of cults in the Middle Ages.
Further reading: Paul De Clerck, “Litany,” EMA,
2.854; Peter Jeffrey, “Litany,” DMA 7.588–94; Michael
Lapidge, Anglo-Saxon Litanies of the Saints(London: Pub-
lished for the Henry Bradshaw Society by the Boydell
Press, 1991).
Lithuania Lithuania is located along the eastern shore
of the Baltic Sea and has been inhabited for a few thou-
sand years by BALTSand other tribes of Indo-European
stock. In the north lies Latvia, populated by other Baltic
peoples, and on the south East Prussia, a territory once
peopled by Baltic Prussians, later conquered by the
Order of TEUTONIC KNIGHTS. Eventually that region
became the duchy of PRUSSIA. In the early 13th century,
the leaders of the Lithuanian people set up a national
state under the leadership of a certain Duke Mindoug
(1219–63) (Mindaugas), who converted to Christianity.
During the 14th century, the grand duchy of Lithuania
was enlarged with vast territories mostly populated by
Slavs, intent on escaping MONGOL domination or the
Teutonic KNIGHTS. During the reign of Grand Duke
Vytautas the Great (r. 1392), Lithuania extended as far as
KIEVand the BLACKSEA.CHRISTIANIZATION
The Lithuanians were among the last peoples of Europe
to become Christians. The conversion of the neighboring
Slavs and German missionary activities among the other
Baltic tribes pressured pagan Lithuania to follow their
example. In the first months of 1251, Duke Mindoug, his
family, and part of his court were baptized. Fear of falling
under the control of the nearby aggressive Teutonic order
led to a conspiracy of nobles in 1263. King Mindoug and
his heirs were assassinated.
The country then returned to PAGANISMfor another
130 years, a period marked by a bitter and continual
struggle against the Teutonic Order as well as by consid-
erable toleration for Christianity. The grand dukes
remained pagans until 1386 but married Christians and
allowed their children to do so. In 1385, the grand duke
Jagiello (r. 1377–1434) agreed to marry Hedwig or Jad-
wiga (ca. 1373–99), the queen of POLAND, and to rule in
a personal union. This brought rapid Christianization. In
February and March 1386, Jagiello was baptized, married
Hedwig, and was crowned king of Poland under the
name of Ladislas II at CRACOW. Many of his people fol-
lowed his example and converted. Vilnius, his capital,
became a diocese.
The western part of Lithuania, Samogitia, was
controlled until 1387 by the Teutonic Knights, so Chris-
tianization came about only later (1413–17). There
is little trace of any literary text written before the
15th century. The Lithuanian people transmitted to later
generations a rich oral literature of popular songs,
funerary chants, and FABLES. With their conversion,
GOTHICforms were introduced into the construction of
churches and palaces.
See also JAGIELLONIANS, DYNASTY OF;NEVSKY,
ALEXANDER,SAINT.
Further reading:Oswald P. Backus, Motives of West
Russian Nobles in Deserting Lithuania for Moscow,
1377–1514(Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1957);