Livonia 449Eric Christiansen, The Northern Crusades: The Baltic and
the Catholic Frontier, 1100–1525 (1980; reprint, New
York: Penguin Books, 1997); Juozas Erlickas, History of
Lithuania(Vilnius: Tyto Alba, 2000); Aleksander Gieysz-
tor, “The Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of
Lithuania,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History.Vol.
7, c. 1415–c. 1500,ed. Christopher Allmand (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998), 727–747; Marija
Alseikaité Gimbutas, The Balts(1963; reprint, New York:
Praeger, 1968); Zigmantas Kiaupa, The History of Lithua-
nia before 1795(Vilnius: Lithuanian Institute of History,
2000; Paulius Rabikauskas, “Lithuania,” EMA2.854–55;
S. C. Rowell, Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire within
East-Central Europe, 1295–1345(Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994).
liturgical books Medieval liturgical books were
designed for worship at the MASS, the OFFICE, and the
administration of the SEVEN SACRAMENTS. Before the fifth
and sixth centuries, liturgical practice was overwhelm-
ingly oral, though from the beginnings of Christianity a
copy of the BIBLEwas used for readings.
The transition from an oral practice to books was a
change in the practice of the LITURGY. Church authori-
ties wanted liturgical texts to express orthodoxy and
define the FAITH, so the new compilations of texts into
official collections, were done with that in mind. It was
accomplished primarily during the fifth and sixth cen-
turies. The liturgical books of the early Middle Ages
were still characterized by a great diversity in content.
The church was never able entirely to suppress oral
practice, especially of chant or common prayers, such as
the canon of the Mass. There had to be memorized most
of the time.
EVOLUTION OF BOOKSLiturgical books were mostly composed of small book-
lets containing texts for a single liturgical activity. These
booklets were eventually collected into an organized
structure and specialized books that culminated in the
MISSALfor the mass and the BREVIARYfor the office. They
were especially important in unifying liturgical practice,
as promised under CHARLEMAGNE. Alongside liturgical
books proper, there existed detailed guides for the
clergy to conduct the liturgy, such as customaries, and
ordinaries.
See alsoGREGORIAN CHANT; MISSALS.
Further reading:Eric Palazzo, A History of Liturgical
Books from the Beginning to the Thirteenth Century,trans.
Madeleine Beaumont (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical
Press, 1998); Richard W. Pfaff, Medieval Latin Liturgy: A
Select Bibliography(Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1982); Richard W. Pfaff, ed., The Liturgical Books of
Anglo-Saxon England (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute,
Western Michigan University, 1995); Andrew Prescott,
The Benedictional of Saint Æthelwold: A Masterpiece of
Anglo-Saxon Art, a Facsimile (London: British Library,
2002); Gernot R. Wieland, The Canterbury Hymnal:
Edited from British Library MS. Additional 37517(Toronto:
Published for the Centre for Medieval Studies by the Pon-
tifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1982).liturgy, Christian SeeCALENDARS AND THE RECKONING
OF DATES; CAROLINGIANRENAISSANCE; LITURGICAL BOOKS;
MASS; MISSAL; MUSIC; SACRAMENTARY; SEVEN SACRAMENTS;
VESTMENTS, LITURGICAL.Liutprand of Cremona(Liudprand) (ca. 915–972)
bishop of Cremona, diplomat, historian
Born about 915, Liutprand in about 932 or 933 entered
the court of Pavia, where his noble father and stepfather
had served. Liutprand acquired there a classical educa-
tion and became a deacon and later a priest. King Beren-
gar II (ca. 900–966) chose him for a diplomatic mission
to CONSTANTINOPLE in 949 because he could speak
Greek. In trouble with the king after his return, for
unknown reasons, Liutprand fled to the court of King
OTTOI, to whom he then devoted lifelong service. In
961, during his second descent into ITA LY, he was given
the bishopric of Cremona by Otto. He took part in impor-
tant synods in 963 and in 967 and imperial courts in 967
and 970 and served Otto as ambassador to Byzantium in
968 and 971. An unusual participant in the Italian, Ger-
man, and Byzantine worlds he wrote the Reprisals against
Berengar II, The History of Otto,on Otto I’s policy in Italy;
and an account of his failed embassy in 968. He died in
972 on a trip to Constantinople.
See alsoTHEOPHANO,EMPRESS OF THEHOLYROMAN
EMPIRE.
Further reading:Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona, The
Embassy to Constantinople and Other Writings,trans. F. A.
Wright and ed. John Julius Norwich (London: J. M. Dent,
1993); Jon N. Sutherland, Liudprand of Cremona, Bishop,
Diplomat, Historian: Studies of the Man and His Age(Spo-
leto: Centro italiano di studi sull’Alto Medioevo, 1988).livestock SeeANIMALS AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.Livonia (Estonia) In the 13th century Livonia was a
Baltic region that consisted of modern Estonia and north-
ern Latvia. It was inhabited by the Livs, a tribe of FINNISH
stock. Until the 12th century, the Livs were organized as a
confederation that withstood VIKINGand Rus ́attacks. In
1160, merchants from LÜBECKfounded a colony on the
Dvina River, a base for Christian and economic expansion
into Livonia. German missions worked successfully in
the region only at the end of the 12th century, backed
by the military order of the Knights or Brothers of the
Sword of Livonia or the Knights of Dobrin. That order