450 Llull, Ramón
conquered Livonia, and formed it into a regional confed-
eration that grew to encompass all of southern Latvia and
survived until the 16th century. The order also enserfed
the local people. Its major cities of Riga and Tallinna were
important in the HANSEATICLEAGUE.
See alsoMISSIONS AND MISSIONARIES,CHRISTIAN;TEU-
TONICKNIGHTS.
Further reading:Henry of Livonia, The Chronicle of
Henry of Livonia,trans. Jane Brundaye (Madison: Univer-
sity of Wisconsin Press, 1961); Eric Christiansen, The
Northern Crusades: The Baltic and the Catholic Frontier,
1100–1525 (1980; reprint, New York: Penguin Books,
1997); Jüri Kivimäe and Juhan Kreem, eds., Quotidianum
estonicum: Aspects of Daily Life in Medieval Estonia
(Krems: Medium Aevum Quotidianum, 1996); John
Leighly, The Towns of Medieval Livonia(Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1939); Tonis Lukas, “Estonia,”
EMA, 2.498–499; Erik Tiberg, Moscow, Livonia and the
Hanseatic League, 1487–1550(Stockholm: Almqvist and
Wiksell International, 1995).
Llull, Ramón(Raymond Lull) SeeLULL,RAMÓN, AND
LULLISM.
Llywelyn II Fawr ab Iorwerth the Great(1174–
1240)prince of Gwynedd
Known as Llywelyn the Great, he has been perceived as
the most successful ruler of medieval WALES. Llywelyn
seized Gwynedd and Conwy from his father and brothers
in 1194. He gained control of most of Wales in 1207,
becoming the most powerful Welsh prince. He was still
favored by King JOHNLackland and in 1205 even married
the king’s illegitimate daughter, Joan (d. 1237), and they
had five children. In 1210, however, John invaded Wales.
Llywelyn had to relinquish all but Gwynedd west of the
Conwy in the far west of the country. With the support of
Pope INNOCENTIII, Llywelyn challenged this arrange-
ment and with the help of other Welsh lords regained the
lost lands. He later joined the English barons opposed to
John and received concessions in the MAGNACARTAof
- By 1216, Llywelyn was recognized as the overlord
of the rulers of Wales, a position then acknowledged by
John’s successor, HENRYIII, at the treaty of Worcester in - He successfully resisted English incursions and
invasions in the 1230s. Llywelyn’s power allowed him to
establish a strong state with an efficient administrative
system but one built on many negotiated links. On his
death in 1240 as a monk at Aberconwy, his son, David II
(r. 1240–46), inherited a peaceful principality. His rule
was accepted by the English.
Further reading: David Walker, Medieval Wales
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); F. M.
Powicke, King Henry III and the Lord Edward: The Commu-
nity of the Realm in the Thirteenth Century, 2 vols.
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1947).
Llywelyn III ap Gruffydd the Last (ca. 1225–1282)
prince of Gwynedd and Wales
Known as “the Last Prince,” Llywelyn was the grandson
of LLEWELYN APIORWERTH. As prince of Gwynedd, he
inherited western Gwynedd in WALESjointly with his
brother, Owain Goch (d. ca. 1280), in 1245 in return for
pledging military service to the English king, HENRYIII.
Llewelyn, however, in 1255 regained Welsh strongholds
from English control. In 1258 he assumed the title of
Prince of Wales, which had to be confirmed by Henry in
1267 according to the Treaty of Morgannwg.
Relations with England were calm until the 1272
accession of EDWARDI. The new king demanded the com-
plete fulfillment of the terms of the treaty. Llewelyn then
stopped paying tribute and provocatively married the
daughter of Edward’s old enemy, SIMON DEMONTFORT THE
YOUNGER. In response Edward attacked Wales in force,
and most of Wales collapsed under this attack. Llewelyn
was reduced to only western Gwynedd. Although Llewe-
lyn remained at peace for sometime, his brother, Dafydd
(d. 1283), however, attacked Hawarden CASTLEin 1282.
Llewelyn was thus drawn into a Welsh resistance to a new
English invasion. On December 11, 1282, he was killed by
English troops at Cilmeri. Llewelyn left only a daughter,
Gwenlilian, who was forced to become a NUN. Welsh resis-
tance ended with Dafydd’s death in 1283.
Further reading:A. D. Carr, Llywelyn ap Gruffydd–
1282 (Cardiff: Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru, University of
Wales Press, 1982), John Edward Morris, The Welsh Wars
of Edward I: A Contribution to Mediaeval Military History
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968); David Stephenson, The
Last Prince of Wales: Llywelyn and King Edward, the End of
the Welsh Dream, 1282–83(Buckingham, England: Bar-
racuda Books, 1983).logic Medieval logic tried to incorporate sound reason-
ing, common ideas about the correct form of argument,
and careful analysis of the semantic properties of words
and propositions. Along with GRAMMARand RHETORIC,it
formed the triviumand had a central place in the educa-
tional and scientific systems of the Middle Ages. It was
viewed as one of the central disciplines of the university
study and the fundamental and uniting principle of ratio-
nal argumentation for every discipline or art.ARISTOTELIAN BASIS
The Categoriesof ARISTOTLE, his On Interpretation, and
Porphyry’s Isagoge were the textual basis for the “old
logic,” especially as employed by Peter ABÉLARDand the
school of CHARTRESin the 12th century. As other works of
Aristotle had become accessible in Latin around 1200, the
resulting “new logic” moved to more analysis of sophisms
or fallacious arguments and paralogisms. Both this old and
new logic formed the antique logic,which was supplanted
in the late 12th century by the “logic of the moderns”