alone according to the new procedure introduced by his
predecessor. Before this, papal elections often involved various
rulers and nobles and the messy participation of the people
of Rome. Given that the pope also appoints the cardinals, the
procedure ensures a totally ecclesiastical process.• When he was himself elected pope, Gregory VII was extraordinarily
active and aggressive in the assertion of papal powers in both the
religious and secular spheres. In addition to Italy, he asserted papal
control over Corsica, Sardinia, Spain, Hungary, and even Denmark.
He condemned Philip I of France for the practice of simony (the
purchase of spiritual power by financial means), and he sought to
establish positive relations with Byzantium.
• Gregory VIII is perhaps most well known for his role in the
investiture controversy.
o The investiture issue is by nature messy and had been an
irritant for some time. The basic question was whether the
state authority or only the pope had the right to “invest” new
bishops with the symbols of their authority; in effect, the issue
concerned the power of appointment.
o The state had an interest because such positions could
be purchased, and placing political favorites as bishops
strengthened the hands of secular rulers. The papacy had an
interest for the same political reasons but with regard also
to the central control of the church throughout the empire.
Secondarily, the papacy was concerned that simony would
corrupt the appointment process entirely.o The issue flared in Gregory VII’s relations with Henry IV,
the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to mutual condemnations
and excommunications. In 1075, Gregory charged the young
king with crimes that deserved the ban of the church and even
sought to depose him from his position as king.