Lecture 32: Papal Revolution
o Gregory’s intemperate language led Henry to summon a synod
at Worms in 1076 that sought, in turn, to depose Gregory from
the papacy. Gregory then excommunicated Henry, divested him
of his royal authority, and released his subjects of their fealty.o Lacking support from his nobles to effectively depose Gregory
in turn, Henry went through an elaborate repentance at Canossa,
but the actual issue of investiture remained unresolved.o When conflict again flared, Gregory sought to excommunicate
and depose Henry a second time, but the German princes
rallied to Henry. Henry entered Italy with an army in 1084, and
Gregory was forced into exile.o The Concordat of Worms in 1122 subsequently agreed that
appointments should be in the power of the church but stated
that rulers could advise during the process.• Gregory VII’s internal reforms of the church also moved in the
direction of greater centralized control by the papacy.
o In all ecclesiastical disputes—say, between bishops—Gregory
insisted that appeal was to be made to the pope rather than to
synods of bishops, an initiative that bishops in some regions
understandably resented.o The moral standards of local clergy were addressed through
the imposition of compulsory celibacy; Gregory wrote an
encyclical in 1074 that absolved Christians of obedience to
bishops who allowed married priests. Similarly, simony—
the practice of buying ecclesiastical positions—was
strictly forbidden.o It was Gregory VII who demanded that Berengar, the theologian
who had offered a minimalist “symbolic” understanding of
Christ’s presence in the Eucharist, perform a confession of faith
with respect to the “real presence” of Christ, thus presumably
stimulating greater reverence for the Eucharist.