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invasive by some scientists and managers while it continues to be recommended for
planting by others. Further research is needed as well about factors that underlie the
knowledge and attitudes of natural resource professionals, who may differ amo ng
themselves on issues such as the role of livestock grazing in invasion and restoration
or the advisability of using nonnative plants in post-wildfi re rehabilitation.
We suggested that education and collaboration are important components of an
integrated exotic invasive grass management strategy. However, our recommenda-
tions are based more on theory and extrapolation than on direct observation of the
effectiveness of such efforts. Evaluations of educational strategies such as the
EBIPM curricula are needed. Also, while active engagement in invasive plant man-
agement has been shown to improve citizen’s knowledge, results of specifi c pro-
grams are mixed—Jordan et al. ( 2011 ) did not fi nd improvement in the use of
practices that could red uce invasion or control infestations, whereas Crall et al.
( 2013 ) found after a different training program that participants intended to change
practices and hopefully did so. It is important to understand which sorts of educa-
tional efforts are more likely to lead to behavior change, as well as the degree to
which external barriers prevent behavior change even when knowledge increases.
Similarly, while it is often argued that participation in collaborative natural resource
management efforts build trust , this has not been tested in the specifi c situation of
exotic invasive plant management. Research is needed that can identify the elements
or procedures of collaborative programs that are most closely associated with
improved trust, as well as improved success in dete ction, control, and restoration.
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