Ibid., 26; see also Geison, “Divided We Stand,” 67–90.
Tuchman, Science, Medicine, and the State in Germany, 163–64. On the mean-
ings of scientifi c medicine in Victorian Britain, see Terrie M. Romano, Making Medicine
Scientifi c: John Burdon Sanderson and the Culture of Victorian Science (Baltimore, MD: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
See Michael A. Osborne, “The Geographical Imperative in Nineteenth- Century
French Medicine” (ch. 2), Mark Harrison, “Differences of Degree: Representations of
India in British Medical Topography, 1820–c. 1870” (ch. 3), and Ronald L. Numbers,
“Medical Science before Scientifi c Medicine: Refl ections on the History of Medical
Geography” (ch. 13), all in Medical Geography in Historical Perspective, ed. Nicolaas A.
Rupke (London: Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine, 2000).
Bell, College of Physicians of Philadelphia, 8–9.
N. S. Davis, “An Address on the Nature of the Science and Art of Medicine,
and Their Relations to the Various Important Interests of the People,” Chicago Medical
Journal & Examiner 40 (1880): 450.
On medical geography in America, see Gregg Mitman and Ronald L. Num-
bers, “From Miasma to Asthma: The Changing Fortunes of Medical Geography in
America,” History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 25 (2003): 391–412; and James H.
Cassedy, “Medical Geography of a Growing Nation,” in Medicine and American Growth,
1800–1860 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), 33–59; see also Cassedy,
“Meteorology and Medicine in Colonial America: Beginnings of the Experimental Ap-
proach,” Journal of the History of Medicine 24 (1969): 193–204.
Warner, Against the Spirit of System, 3.
S. Weir Mitchell, “Memoir of John Call Dalton, 1825–1889,” National Academy
of Sciences, Biographical Memoirs 3 (1895): 181.
Ronald L. Numbers and William J. Orr Jr., “William Beaumont’s Reception at
Home and Abroad,” Isis 72 (1981): 590–612, esp. 593.
“Report of the Commissioners Appointed by the Governor of New Jersey, to
Ascertain the Number of Lunatics and Idiots in the State” (Newark: M. S. Harrison,
1840), 9, quoted in David Gollaher, Voice for the Mad: A Life of Dorothea Dix (New York:
Free Press, 1995), 186.
John Collins Warren, quoted in Sherwin B. Nuland, Doctors: The Biography of
Medicine (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), 289–90. On the various responses to surgi-
cal anesthesia, see Martin S. Pernick, A Calculus of Suffering: Pain, Professionalism, and
Anesthesia in Nineteenth- Century America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985).
Samuel Jackson et al., “Report of the Special Committee Appointed to Prepare:
A Statement of the Facts and Arguments Which May Be Adduced in Favour of the
Prolongation of the Courses of Medical Lectures to Six Months,” American Medical As-
sociation, Transactions 2 (1849): 361.
For histories of the various biomedical disciplines, see Ronald L. Numbers, ed.,
The Education of American Physicians: Historical Essays (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1980).
Henry P. Bowditch to Henry I. Bowditch, January 26, 1869, quoted in John
Harley Warner and Janet A. Tighe, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Medi-
cine and Public Health (Boston: Houghton Miffl in, 2001), 198.
Henry J. Bigelow, Medical Education in America (Cambridge: Welch, Bigelow &
