261ĈčĆĕęĊė 9
Managing Maritime Affairs
in Late-Ming Times
Introduction
It is generally accepted that throughout the whole of its long history
China remained land-centric and anti-commercial. Agriculture was
considered the proper and fundamental economic activity that
provided a solid foundation for society. For this reason, the state would
not support commercial entrepreneurship in general and maritime
enterprises in particular on a sustainable basis. In contrast to her
European counterparts, that ventured out to discover and explore new
lands from the late βifteenth century, the Chinese developed their culture
independently, forming a self-centered Chinese “culturalism”. It was
always a top priority of the state to strive for self-sufβiciency in agriculture
and provide enough food for its large population. The only form of foreign
trade recognized by the Confucian state was the transactions conducted
within the tributary framework.^1
Despite the traditional state ideology and economic policy orientation,
seafaring activities actually had a long history in China, especially on its
southeast coast. Even the government indulged in maritime commerce
under certain circumstances. For example, maritime commerce became
an essential part of the national economy during the South Song period.^2
The grand scope of overseas commercial contacts during this time
persisted until the Chinese state closed itself off again after the founding
of the Ming dynasty. Following a brief period of 28 years commencing in
1405, the state initiated seven sea expeditions under the command of
Zheng He. Then the door open to the maritime world was shut off again
with the re-imposition of the strict Seafaring Prohibition (haijin).
- For a general discussion, see Dun J. Li, The Ageless Chinese—A History (New
York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1965), pp. 281‒92. - See Lo Jung-pang, “The Emergence of China as a Sea Power during the Late
Sung and Early Yüan Period”, Far Eastern Quarterly 14, 4 (Aug. 1955): 497‒9.