262 Boundaries and Beyond
It was exactly at the time when the Seafaring Prohibition policy was
in force that the South Fujianese (Minnan ren, or Minnam nang in the
South Fujianese dialect) on China’s southeast coast were embarking on
seafaring activities in increasingly large numbers. Many of them even
sailed to or migrated overseas; others involved themselves in piracy.
The second half of the Ming Dynasty between the years 1522, the
beginning of the long-reign of the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1522‒66), and
1644, when the Ming collapsed, was a time of striking contrasts to
the earlier part of the dynasty. Although despotism was at its height,
dynastic rule was in decline, eventually leading to the downfall of the
dynasty. Nevertheless, in response to fresh challenges diverse changes
were taking place, especially in the traditional economy. Among these
new endeavors were efforts to improve agricultural techniques by the
introduction of new implements, a better understanding of the use of
manure and the introduction of new plants. Much technical progress
was also achieved in the βields of weaving and irrigation. Such utilitarian
or statecraft scholars as Xu Guangqi (1562‒1633) and Song Yingxing
(1587‒1666)^3 occupied themselves with the scrutiny of practices that
might contribute to the well-being of the country. Beyond the boundaries
of traditional occupations, there was a surge in the commodity economy
and in domestic inter-regional trade.
In South Fujian, where the rugged terrain dropped abruptly into the
sea to form an irregular coastline, littered with many bays and good
harbors, fertile arable land was scarce. After one thousand years of
development prior to the mid-Ming period that was accompanied by
population growth, land utilization there had reached its limits. Even the
agricultural improvements and innovations mentioned earlier could do
nothing to reverse the adversity. Natural catastrophes, though not new in
Chinese agricultural history, became fatal in this land of low productivity
on which the population relied it for their livelihood.
In addition to the economic hardship, intolerable social oppression
had pushed the South Fujianese people to breaking point. It became
commonplace in the countryside that witnessed the malpractices of the
shijia (local prominent families) and the shihao (powerful people), hand-
in-glove with corrupt local ofβicials in their efforts to exploit the already
- Xu Guangqi 徐光啟, a high-ranking Court ofβicial and agriculturist, was the
author of Nongzheng quanshu 農政全書 [A complete record of agriculture].
Song Yingxing 宋應星, a local ofβicial, was among many others during the late
Ming who endeavored to improve the nation through practical studies. He was
the author of Tian gong kai wu 天工开物 [The exploitation of the works of
nature], an important work on technology in late imperial China.
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