existentialism/existential 99indicate a morally relevant difference; that acts of
killing and letting die are both of equal moral weight,
both bringing about a patient’s death, with the same
purposes and intention; and, moreover, that there are
cases where active euthanasia is more humane because
it would end suffering earlier. Given the purpose of
euthanasia, which is to end suffering, and given the
lack of a real moral difference between active and pas-
sive euthanasia, he propounds that active euthanasia
ought to be allowed and practiced.
Another difficult issue concerns who should be
allowed to die by an act of euthanasia. In Holland,
there have been requests for euthanasia from people
who are not in immediate danger of death and whose
suffering is not immediate or not physical, for exam-
ple, people who are HIV-positive but who wish to die
before the onset of full-blown AIDS, and anorexic
patients who do not respond to treatment. There have
also been requests for euthanasia from people whose
suffering is psychological rather than physical.
The moral and political issues surrounding eu-
thanasia, like those of abortion, concern very deep
questions about death and quality of life, as well as
questions about the traditional aims and purposes of
medical practice. Important values conflict in this
debate, including the sanctity of life versus respect for
the autonomy and agency of individuals. This lack of
conceptual clarity is made more difficult by quick
advances in medical technology.
Further Reading
Dworkin, G., Frey, R. G., and Bok, S. Euthanasia and Physician-
Assisted Suicide (For and Against).New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1998.
evangelical
A branch or movement in CHRISTIANITY, most often
associated with REFORMATIONProtestants, with distinct
political consequences. EVANGELICAL Christians hold
the Bible as the main source of God’s truth, salvation
through faith in Jesus Christ, the DEMOCRATIC“church
of all believers” and the need to “evangelize,” or
spread the truths of Christianity around the world.
Most Evangelicals also emphasize a personal or “born-
again” religious experience to prove one’s Christian
faith. This INDIVIDUALISM, allowing the person to com-
mune directly with God through the Bible and prayer,
leads to a natural EQUALITY and democracy in the
church and society. So, the PURITAN, early English evan-
gelicals, advocated independent congregational chur-
ches (freed from pope and bishops) along with REPUB-
LICANsecular government.
In contemporary U.S. politics, “Evangelicals” are
often associated with the CONSERVATIVE RELIGIOUSor
CHRISTIAN RIGHT, which advocates traditional Christian
moral policies in government (religious education
in schools; laws against ABORTION, divorce, pornogra-
phy, and HOMOSEXUALITY) along with reductions in
taxes, welfare programs, and increased military
spending. Evangelical Christians often take a provi-
dential or COVENANTview of politics. Leaders include
Billy Graham, Jerry Falwell, and Marion “Pat” Robert-
son. U.S. president Jimmy CARTERwas an evangelical
Christian.Further Reading
Dayton, D. W. Discovering an Evangelical Heritage.New York:
Harper & Row, 1976.existentialism/existential
A philosophy developed in 20th-century Europe asso-
ciated with thinkers Sören KIERKEGAARD, Friedrich
NIETZSCHE, Edward Husserl, Martin HEIDEGGER, and
Jean-Paul SARTRE, Politically, existentialism has been
aligned with MARXIST COMMUNISMin France and NAZI
FASCISMin Germany.
The main theme of existentialism is that the indi-
vidual is alone, suffering from meaninglessness and
ALIENATION. No rational order, NATURAL LAW, or divine
providence exists, only self-made reality. The world
and society are chaotic, unpredictable, and incompre-
hensible. This leaves the individual to “make” his or
her own reality, to take personal responsibility for one’s
FREEDOM, never relying on any external objective reli-
gious or moral system or institution (such as CHRISTI-
ANITYor the church). To live this independent way is
“authentic” and “courageous” but is inevitably filled
with dread, anxiety, and fear of death. Most existential-
ist thinkers are atheists, finding no meaning or com-
fort in God and seeing the faithful as weak and
ignorant. People must make their own reality inten-
tionally and responsibly. The emphasis on self and
HUMANISMmay explain the tendency of some existen-
tialists to embrace Adolf HITLERand Nazism because it
claimed to be bold and unsentimental. Others (like
Frenchmen Sartre and Maurice Merleau-Ponty) em-
braced LEFTpolitics, seeing Marxist SOCIALISMas taking
the world realistically.