The depressing, alienated thought of existential-
ism probably reflects the alienation in European soci-
ety (especially among intellectuals) during the
tumultuous 19th and 20th centuries when radical
economic and political change and two world wars
challenged everything stable and orderly in their
culture. In many ways, it is the way a sensitive Euro-
pean mind tried to cope with modernity (industrial-
ism, secularism, INDIVIDUALISM). Having abandoned
any traditional religious faith or sense of social order,
existentialists fell on themselves as the only reality;
their subjective “feelings” were the only truth known
to them.
By the late 21st century, existentialism was no
longer a prominent philosophy, being replaced either
by individualist hedonism or some return to belief in
social order and religious truth.
Further Reading
Kotarba, Joseph A., and Fontana, Andrea, eds. The Existential
Self in Society.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
exploitation
To use or “exploit” someone or a group of people with-
out fairly compensating them. Most prominent in the
LEFTpolitical theory of Karl MARX, exploitation is usu-
ally taking advantage of one economic class by
another. So, for example, slave labor is said to be
exploited by the masters because slaves work very
hard for little pay or return. Marxism claims that all
“oppressed” workers are exploited throughout history
(e.g., peasants by landlords during the FEUDALISMof
the MIDDLE AGES; industrial workers or the proletariat
by CAPITALISTS; etc.). Marxist Sociology takes this con-
cept of exploitation (or unfair use of others) and
applies it to other social groups (men exploit women,
whites exploit people of color, the advanced indus-
trial nations exploit the poor Third World countries,
etc.). This perspective sees most relationships as char-
acterized by exploitation—someone is being used and
treated unfairly. This leads to the LIBERAL DEMOCRATIC
and SOCIALISTpolitical movements to fight on behalf
of the exploited and oppressed; to redistribute PROP-
ERTY, power, and status to those who have been
exploited; and to establish a society where exploitation
will no longer occur (such as in COMMUNISM). In line
with Marxism, the source of exploitation is identi-
fied with external social systems rather than internal
(evil) HUMAN NATURE, so its solution is in social engi-
neering rather than psychological or spiritual trans-
formation.
This predominantly MODERN view of exploitation
contrasts with much of ancient and medieval political
thought, which sees such unfair use of others as ema-
nating from cruel and selfish human nature or actually
being a fair exchange between unequals in society.
Who defines whether an act is exploitative (the “vic-
tim,” the law, the perpetrator, or some dominant cul-
ture) affects the outcome of the definition. But the
prevalence of this Leftist perspective on exploitation,
especially in EGALITARIAN, democratic cultures, has
tended to render any one or group with power sus-
pected of exploiting others. Thus the rich, prominent,
white, male, heterosexual, First World, and well-edu-
cated people are perceived in this view as inevitably
privileged oppressors and exploiters.
A further application of this concept occurs in the
ENVIRONMENTALand ANIMAL RIGHTSmovements, which
present the Earth or “Mother Nature” as being
exploited by humans. In this view, people unfairly use
up and pollute the natural realm and resources by their
superior power. Thus, environmentalists seek to
defend Nature from exploitation by humanity.Further Readings
Elster, J. Making Sense of Marx,chap. 4. Cambridge, Eng.: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1985.
Lukes, S. Marxism and Morality.Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985.
Steiner, H. “A liberal theory of exploitation,” Ethics 94(1984):
225–41.100 exploitation