Jehovah’s Witnesses 163In founding the new American republic, Jefferson
drew upon Aristotle’s theories of an independent, edu-
cated, economically self-sufficient citizenry. He tried to
replicate the ancient Greek polis in the small partici-
patory democracies, or wards, in Virginia, where every
citizen would engage in some form of rule or self-gov-
ernance. This small scale, direct democracy would be
linked to the state and national levels of state by an
elected “Natural Aristocracy” of “wisdom and VIRTUE.”
Much like PLATO’s Republic, Jefferson conceived of
American public education as elevating all citizens into
their natural “places” in society, to the benefit of all
humanity. He saw CHRISTIANethics as essential to the
harmonious social relations in the U.S. democracy and
believed that freedom of religion would promote toler-
ance, morality, PROGRESS, and “the ethics of Jesus.” His
conception of the separation of CHURCH AND STATEmade
America both the most diverse, religious society and
the most EVANGELICALChristian nation in the world.
His ambiguity on the SLAVERYissue (denouncing it as an
institution but owning African-American slaves him-
self) and alternating views on nationalism versus STATES
RIGHTS caused Jefferson’s critics to accuse him of
hypocrisy. But he remained consistent in regarding
human slavery as immoral and seeing the state govern-
ments as controlling domestic policy (relegating the
federal government to foreign relations). With ample
aid from his secretary of state, James MADISON,he
accomplished the Louisiana Purchase, thereby doubling
the size of the United States. His use of the national
government during the embargo led to fierce opposi-
tion in New England.
Jefferson subscribed to classical REPUBLICANideals
of an agrarian economy; local governance of virtuous
yeoman farmer–citizens; and suspicion of centralized
government, standing armies, capitalist finance,
public debt, and political patronage. He compromised
his ideals, however, to build a strong military to pro-
tect U.S. trade interests and nascent industrialism.
Jefferson’s influence has been worldwide, from
developing-world national liberation movements to
democracy movements in the former Soviet bloc coun-
tries. Because of his wide-ranging writings, he is cited
as an authority by widely divergent groups and ideo-
logies: from CONSERVATIVE LIBERTARIANS to RADICAL
SOCIALISTS. He himself was a complex thinker and per-
sonality: aristocratic yet progressive; dignified but
EGALITARIAN; democratic yet elevated; morally conser-
vative, but politically radical. In the end, Jefferson and
his political thought defy simple explanation, and they
remain a fascinating enigma.Further Readings
Koch, A. The Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson.Gloucester, Mass.:
Peter Smith, 1957.
Sheldon, G. W. The Political Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson.Bal-
timore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.Jehovah’s Witnesses
A religious group known for its political involvement,
especially in U.S. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. Originally
founded from a CHRISTIANgroup led by Charles Raze
Russell, the sect deviated from traditional Christianity
by denying the divinity of Jesus. Rather like Jewish
and Muslim believers, Jehovah’s Witnesses worship
one God (Jehovah) and spread their doctrines through
aggressive evangelism.
Politically, this group became active in the 1930s in
challenging state authority (as idolatrous) through
numerous SUPREME COURT cases, most notably cases
concerning religious freedom (the right to evangelize
door-to-door) and separation of CHURCH AND STATEThomas Jefferson. Painting by Thomas Sully. (NATIONALARCHIVES)