trol and ABORTION, although the term privacyis not
listed as a constitutional right. This interpretation of
the U.S. Constitution has been challenged by CONSER-
VATIVEscholars who claim that no such “right to pri-
vacy” is in this founding document of the American
republic and that the unborn’s “right to life” is more
important than any mere privacy right.
Much of contemporary expressions of individual
privacy have to do with the invasion of one’s “space”
by computer technology. The right to have a private or
secret identity, known only to the self, is potentially
compromised by current information systems that
gather data on individuals for business or marketing
purposes. The commercial use of public information
about a person (financial condition, health records,
educational history, etc.) has led to “privacy legisla-
tion,” or laws to protect individual privacy from use by
unauthorized persons or organizations. Even giving
out one’s telephone number or e-mail address (without
the person’s consent) may be a violation of legally pro-
tected privacy.
In Modern mass society, where individual privacy is
invaded by government, business, and social organiza-
tions, the issue of how individual space, peace, and
solitude are preserved and protected will continue to
be a major social problem. Hannah ARENDT in The
Human Conditionargued that Modern society destroys
both private life and true public life.
Further Readings
Pennock, J. R., and Chapman, J. W., eds. Nomos XIII: Privacy.
New York: Atherton Press, 1971.
Schoeman, F., ed. Philosophical Dimensions of Privacy. Cam-
bridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
progress/progressive
The idea that human life and society improves or “pro-
gresses” (morally, educationally, technologically, politi-
cally, economically) over time and through history.
The view that humanity is improving as time goes on
is prevalent in MODERN ENLIGHTENMENT LIBERALISM,
which sees reason and CAPITALISM as continually
improving the world. This IDEOLOGY of human
progress continues in the HISTORICISM of HEGEL and
Karl MARX (COMMUNISM). The DIALECTIC claims to
explain this historical progress mechanism. Scientifi-
cally, Charles Darwin’s theory of the evolution of
species over time contributes to the Modern world-
view of historical progress. SOCIAL DARWINISMapplies
this evolutionary perspective to society, seeing free-
market competition as advancing economic and
national (as well as individual and corporate) progress.
So, progressive politics tends to have an optimistic
view of humans’ ability to change and improve their
collective lives. Like the Liberal U.S. DEMOCRATIC PARTY,
such progressive philosophy believes in social reform
and improvement (through legal, educational, welfare,
and economic government policy). The NEW DEALin
the United States is an example of such progressive
politics. As James Davison HUNTERshows in his book
Culture Wars,this progressive outlook tends to dismiss
older moral, religious, and cultural standards as old
fashioned and out-of-date. Consequently, CONSERVATIVE
social thought views progressive IDEOLOGYas destruc-
tive of traditional Judeo-CHRISTIANvalues and the time-
less truths of CLASSICAL philosophy (ARISTOTLE, St.
Thomas AQUINAS, NATURAL LAW, etc.).
The idea of historical progression actually begins
with the writings of St. AUGUSTINE, but this Christian
thinker places progress within God’s providence or
divine plan for humanity. For him, historical progress
occurs only within God’s plan for human redemption
through Christ, the fulfillment of human purpose
through creation. The reality of human sin and help-
lessness means, for St. Augustine, that humankind
cannot improve itself or the world through earthly
reforms (educational, economic, political), but only by
obedience to God’s will and plan.
The United States is known for its faith in progress,
primarily through technological and educational
development. But the Western ideal of human progress
has been shaken by the decline of moral progress, the
enormous destruction of Modern warfare, and set-
backs in medicine, poverty relief, and cultural civiliza-
tion. Faith in human technical progress has been
tempered by such disasters as the sinking of the
Titanic,two world wars, failed space rockets, and com-
puter viruses. Such humbling experiences partly
explain the revival of traditional CONSERVATIVEreligious
and political doubts over the prospects of human
progress. Optimistic opinions over human progress in
these views may just be an expression of human pride
and ignorance.Further Readings
Bury, J. B. The Idea of Progress.London: Macmillan, 1920.
Tuveson, E. L. Millennium and Utopia: A Study in the Background
of the Idea of Progress.Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1964.242 progress/progressive