rate. The rise of LIBERALISM, CAPITALISM, and DEMOCRACY
has tended to break down many characteristics of
racism because they emphasize the individual (his or
her talents, abilities) over any group identity.
Further Readings
Biddiss, M.D. Father of Racist Ideology: The Social and Political
Thought of Count Gobineau.New York: Weybright and Tal-
ley, 1970.
Mosse, G. L. “Toward the final solution.” In A History of Euro-
pean Racism.New York: H. Fertig, 1978.
radical
A person, social movement, or IDEOLOGYthat criticizes
the existing social or political system and works to
change it. This radical challenging of the status quo
(current social or political structure) usually grows
from an exposing of the problems or injustices of the
existing order and proposes reforms or alternative sys-
tems that will improve the country or ruling institu-
tions. In this sense, radicalism can come from many
sources (religious, moral, economic, political) and can
seek different results. SOCRATES challenges decadent
Athens with an appeal to ethical and moral goodness;
Savonarola attacks decadent Italian CATHOLICsociety
from a radical CHRISTIANperspective; Karl MARX’s com-
munism levels an economic critique of CAPITALISTsoci-
ety and politics. MODERN radicalism usually is
associated with the LEFT(LIBERALISMand SOCIALISM),
but RIGHT-WINGmovements (such as FASCISM) can be
equally radical, in the sense of dramatically changing
the existing social order. However, like Jean-Jacques
ROUSSEAU, radical thought believes in the human
capacity to remake society and to make things better
by human action. This optimism of the human ability
to improve individuals and society is contrasted with
CONSERVATIVE thought (as in St. AUGUSTINE, Edmund
BURKE) with its view that human nature is constant
and that social problems exist in all political systems
(and, therefore, efforts must be made to conserve
what is valuable in existing systems). Radicals tend
to become conservative when they achieve power
and to display the same intolerance to change that
their opponents did before them (such as did Joseph
STALIN).
Radical views tend to arise when the existing politi-
cal order no longer functions effectively (as in prerevo-
lutionary France and Russia), so periods of order and
prosperity tend to discourage radicalism.
Further Reading
Lincoln, A. H. Some Political and Social Ideas of English Dissent.
London: Octagon Books, 1938.rational/rationalism/reason
The human capacity to think and decide according to
knowledge, evidence, and understanding, which leads
to intelligent and just conclusions. For the CLASSICAL
Greek philosophers (PLATOand ARISTOTLE), this reason-
ing faculty (or “soul”) is what made humans distinct
and superior to other animals (or “beasts”) and like the
gods. The wisdom of Plato’s PHILOSOPHER-KINGand the
“reasoned speech” of Aristotle’s civilized ruler made
rationality the center of good politics. Roman theory
(CICERO) similarly values reason and LAWthat emerges
from rational deliberation. The Judeo-CHRISTIAN view
that humankind is formed “in the image” of God is
partly related to reason, thought, and speaking. St.
AUGUSTINE’s emphasis on human weakness and sin
dilutes the efficacy of human reason (because it can be
deceived), but St. Thomas AQUINASplaces human rea-
son as one source of the knowledge of the divine (and
NATURAL LAW). The positive view of human reason’s abil-
ity to know reality and improve society continues in
the MODERN ENLIGHTENMENT and MARXISM. Thomas
HOBBES identifies reason as the calculating function
(tabulating pleasure and pain) that leads people out of
the barbaric STATE OF NATUREand into civilized society
and government. John LOCKEincludes a moral dimen-
sion to human reason, which enjoins respecting others’
RIGHTS. Karl MARX’s “DIALECTICAL” reasoning supports
the view that history is moving toward COMMUNISM.
The benefits, qualities, and limitations of human
reason underlie much of Western political thought.
Systems (spiritual, emotional, intuitive) that depreci-
ate reason as a reliable source of knowledge tend to be
less deliberative, procedural, and based on facts or
evidence. When different societies (Eastern vs. West-
ern; TOTALITARIANvs. REPUBLICAN; etc.) subscribe to dif-
ferent systems or styles of reasoning, it can cause
misunderstanding and confusion, making negotia-
tions difficult. For example, the Soviet or Arab culture
does not consider it rational to tell the truth to one’s
enemy while Americans view honesty as essential to
rationality; conflict can result from these differing
concepts of “reason.” If Chinese culture teaches that
all Western peoples are unintelligent barbarians,
Western arguments for liberty may not be appreciated
or accepted.252 radical