The complexity of definition of reason, then, makes
the concept of little use unless it is carefully explained
and thoroughly defined.
Further Readings
Copp, D., and Zimmerman, D., eds. Morality, Reason and Truth:
New Essays on the Foundations of Ethics.Totowa, N.J.: Row-
man & Allanheld, 1984.
Hollis, M., and Lukes, S., eds. Rationality and Relativism.Cam-
bridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1979.
Rauschenbusch, Walter (1861–1918) U.S. so-
cial gospel thinker and activist
A leading figure in the SOCIAL GOSPEL MOVEMENTof the
early 20th century in the United States, Rauschen-
busch applied CHRISTIANsocial ETHICSto problems of
INDUSTRIALISM, poverty, unemployment, disease, and
crime in the United States. As a BAPTISTminister, wit-
nessing the horrible social conditions of the poor in
New York City, Rauschenbusch sought to solve MOD-
ERNsocial problems with the teachings of Jesus (char-
ity, love, peace), using the government to promote
education, health care, poverty relief, and safe working
conditions. This “social gospel” became part of the
PROGRESSIVE-era DEMOCRATIC PARTY’s social reforms and
led to the liberal WELFARE STATEof the NEW DEAL.
This social gospel blending of religion and politics
(like later LIBERATION THEOLOGY) believed that curing
social ills would contribute to the establishment of the
kingdom of God on earth. It tended to be optimistic
about the human capacity to improve humanity and
society by the right use of political power and also
diminished the realism of St. AUGUSTINE and John
CALVINwho saw the persistence of sin in all social
reforms and systems.
Rauschenbusch blended an EVANGELICAL, practical
faith with SOCIALISMin his main books, Christianity and
the Social Crisis(1912) and A Theology for the Social
Gospel(1917). His writings greatly influenced Christ-
ian and liberal social thinkers in 20th-century United
States, including Charles SHELDON, Reinhold NIEBUHR,
and civil-rights leader Martin Luther KING, Jr. His
emphasis on the social responsibility of Christians
grew out of his Protestant religious faith.
Rawls, John(1921– ) U.S. political philosopher
Most famous for his book A Theory of Justice(1971),
John Rawls taught philosophy at Harvard University.
His theory provides a philosophical basis and rationale
for American Liberal WELFARE-STATE DEMOCRACY (or
European SOCIAL DEMOCRACY). He claims that his work
provides an alternative to UTILITARIANphilosophy, but it
remains a more contemporary justification of LEFTIST
political policy.
Rawls begins with a British, liberal (John LOCKE),
SOCIAL-CONTRACTapproach to the formation of govern-
ment. He posits an “original position” (like the STAT E
OF NATURE) in which a RATIONALindividual finds him-
self or herself choosing the best form of STATE.An
important feature of this theoretical position is the
“veil of ignorance” over the individual, which prevents
him or her from knowing where in the future society
he or she will be placed (rich or poor, famous or
obscure, secure or insecure, etc.). This lack of knowl-
edge of what social advantages one might have in soci-
ety makes a rational person choose a society where the
least advantaged are better off than the least advan-
taged in any other society. In other words, if you
should find yourself poor, sick, lowly, and without
help, you would want a social system that takes care of
such miserable people better than any other society.
This may at first glance be COMMUNISM, but the general
poverty of that system disqualifies it. The society that
best takes care of the least advantaged (Rawls’s “max-
imin strategy”) is a mixed economy: free-enterprise
CAPITALISMwith extensive government regulation for
the common good and with social-welfare Liberalism.
This constitutes JUSTICE for Rawls. The free-market
economy creates prosperity, rewards innovation, and
provides material incentives to work, while the state
welfare programs provide equal opportunity to suc-
ceed; aid to the poor, sick, and disabled; and overall
social harmony.
Rawls bases this “justice as fairness” on two prin-
ciples of justice: (1) that each individual has the right
to the most extensive LIBERTY (of speech, religion,
property, movement) compatible with the equal lib-
erty of everyone else; and (2) that any inequality
of wealth and position is arranged so that the result
is a greater benefit to the least advantaged and that
all high positions are DEMOCRATICand open to all peo-
ple through equal opportunity. For example, the gov-
ernment tax and economic regulation should ensure
that great wealth is earned by legitimate means
(inventing truly useful products, establishing more
productive systems, etc., not financial manipulation
or dishonest, fraudulent business practices); and that
the fruits of those unequal benefits can be justlyRawls, John 253