come at heavy costs to the host culture and environment, known as cultural erosion
(Mohammed 2011 : 93). Culture relativity, ethnocentrism, and stereotyping as part
of a cultural imaginary network on online discussion about Thai–Chinese culture
will be analyzed under the framework of sustainable development.
5.2.4 Development Discourse, Sustainability,
and EcoTourism
As the globalization process progresses, it is becoming clearer and clearer that
inequalities exist in both degree and kind. Modernization or economic growth
comes with globalization. However, globalization is not westernization as some
parts of the world are not westernized but are still modernized, such as Singapore,
Taiwan, and Iran (Nisbett 2003 : 224). Modernization means transferring Western
ideas and technological advances to Third World countries. Therefore, a new global
system for transnational investments was established by a new transnational aris-
tocracy that make countries in Latin America, Asia, and Africa become large
importers of transnational goods (De Rivero 2001 :49–50). Not all parts of the
world are equally modernized. In his book,“The Myth of Development,”De Rivero
( 2001 ) discusses development and underdevelopment. De Rivero states that con-
temporary globalization is in fact
the result not so much of free global competition among nations, but of a network of
agreement and productive andfinancial activities among the transnational corporations (De
Rivero 2001 : 47).
He does not use the word“developing”because, in his view, this is just a eulogy
of underdevelopment. Underdeveloped countries lack national capitalism; they
have huge rates of unemployment and demographic growth; they export raw
materials at unprofitable prices; and they have no choice but to seek transnational
investments (De Rivero 2001 : 47). Tourism is a way to earn incomes without much
of investment. However, unplanned tourism can induce ecological disasters.
Ecotourism emerged under the framework of a new development paradigm,
“Multiplicity,”which emphasizes participatory-based advocacy communication for
sustainability, sees development as a nonlinear process which can be planned to
meet one country’s need (Servaes 2013 ). Self-reliance, the ergonomics of using
natural resources, autonomy, appropriate technology, participatory-based, and
emphasis on sustainability are parts of the signature of the multiplicity paradigm
(Servaes 1999 ). The need for development for sustainability is coined with the Thai
perspective on development advocated by Payutto ( 1998 ), a renowned intellectual
Buddhist monk. Payutto ( 1998 : 183–184) emphasizes human development to be in
line with natural environment conservation, not exploiting other humans or the
environment, maintaining self-contentment, the wisdom to accept differences
among mankind and understand that there are different paths to development with
the aim of conserving the environment. Sustainable development in a Thai Buddhist
5.2 Literature Review and Theoretical Perspectives 77