. tibetan buddhism in mongol-yuan china (–) 547
already popular in the Tangut kingdom.^21 The yogic practices of the
six doctrines of Nāropa were likewise extensively disseminated in the
Tangut kingdom and were continuously popular among Yuan follow-
ers of Tibetan tantric Buddhism in China proper.
The actual instruction for performing yogic practices occupies a sub-
stantial part of all extant Chinese texts on Tibetan esoteric Buddhism.^22
Deity yoga, the characteristic feature of Tibetan esoteric Buddhism,
was widely practiced by Mongol and Chinese followers. A group of
sādhana texts of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara was translated during the
Yuan period. Several of these texts are attributed to the third Karma
pa patriarch Rang byung rdo rje.^23 Next to Mahākāla, Vajravārāhī was
the most popular protective deity, especially favored by followers in
both Tangut Xia and Mongol Yuan.
The introduction of Tibetan esoteric Buddhism into Yuan China
marks a historical turn in the history of cross-cultural interaction
between Chinese and Tibetan cultural traditions. Chinese Buddhism
made great contributions to the formation of Tibetan Buddhist tradi-
tions prior to the rise of the Mongols. Since the Mongol adoption of
Tibetan esoteric Buddhism, it became a distinctive element in the Chi-
nese Buddhist world. Although Tibetan tantric Buddhism was often
the target of sharp criticism from the Chinese literati, its teachings and
practices never ceased being disseminated and it became the main-
stream tantric Buddhist tradition in China.
In Yuan China Tibetan esoteric Buddhist practices were not cir-
cumscribed within the Mongol court. The existence of numerous
Chinese translations of Tibetan tantric Buddhist texts reflects the fact
that there were a great number of Chinese practitioners of Tibetan
Buddhism. And tantric practices performed at court evidently had an
impact on people outside the palace as well. According to Yuan Chi-
nese sources,
[T]o take part in Tantric ritual became popular among the bureaucratic
class and even [among] commoners. From imperial concubines to wives
of high-ranking officials, time and again [women] invited masters from(^21) Sperling 1994.
(^22) Shen 2005.
(^23) There are several sādhana texts of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara in the rare book
collection of Chinese National Library in Beijing attributed to either rang byung rdo
rje or Mitrayogin. Rang byung rdo rje was transcribed as Lanrong duoerzhi
.