548 shen weirong
the imperial preceptor’s hall to their home for initiation. They received
initiation in their tent and recited mantras and performed the ritual.
Concubines and princesses who had already become widows went to
the imperial preceptor’s hall by themselves every few days to receive ini-
tiation and to indulge themselves in licentious pleasure. This was called
the “great offering” or “body offering’.” Influenced by these conditions,
all monks in Hebei (China) proper soon had wives.^24Tibetan tantric Buddhism was not only practiced within the great
capital but throughout the country. For instance, Hangzhou, the larg-
est city in the Mongol realm and the capital of the Southern Song
in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, became an important hub of
Tibetan Buddhist activities. A branch bureau of the Bureau of Tibetan
and Buddhist Affairs was established there. Tibetan esoteric Buddhism
took public or official precedence over Han-style Buddhism in Hang-
zhou. Tibetan-style stūpas and monasteries were built. Some impe-
rial palaces and Confucian and Daoist temples were converted into
Tibetan Buddhist monasteries. Tibetan-style sculptures in caves and
within temples were created, and Tibetan Buddhist scriptures were
printed and distributed there.^25 Similarly, Wutai Shan, the sacred site
of Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī and the holy mountain of Chinese Buddhist
pilgrims, was greatly influenced by Tibetan tantric Buddhism. Tibetan-
style sculptures, stūpas, and temples were built there and it has been a
favorite pilgrimage site of Tibetan lamas ever since.
Despite the popularity Tibetan esoteric Buddhism enjoyed among
its Mongol and Chinese followers in Yuan China, the negative por-
trayals of Tibetan lamas and Tibetan Buddhism written by contempo-
rary Chinese literati left extremely unfavorable images of the tradition.
The success of Tibetan monks and the popularity of their religious
practices in the Mongol court were viewed as the cause of the failure of
vigorous attempts made by some Chinese literati to launch a cultural
counterattack against the alien rule, to replace barbarian with Confu-
cian rule.^26
Discrepancies between the words and deeds of Tibetan monks within
and outside the court were highlighted by contemporary Chinese lite-
rati, with obvious prejudice. Tibetan lamas were often described as
endlessly resourceful but evil and despotic monks. Tibetan tantric
(^24) Tian 1985, juan 27. 2:884–85.
(^25) Su 1990, 55.
(^26) Langlois 1978.