590 henrik h. sørensen
and the founding of numerous temples based on the principles of this
system. Tosŏn is said to have received instructions in p’ungsu practice
from the Chinese Esoteric Buddhist master Yixing (673–727),^46
who is also credited with imparting Esoteric Buddhist teachings to
him.^47 However, much of the written material on Tosŏn and his
achievements is fictitious and of a much later date, something that took
place during the middle of the Koryŏ dynasty when he had attained
the status of cultural hero.^48
Esoteric Buddhism and the Practice of Empowerment in Korea
After the unification of the realm by Silla in 668 C.E., Esoteric Bud-
dhist materials appear to have become increasingly prevalent in the
kingdom. This trend is clearly reflected in the tradition of making
stūpas and pagodas in Korea. Given its ancient origin, stūpa worship
and its empowerment is of course not a practice exclusive to Esoteric
Buddhism, but the way it developed in East Asia from the seventh
century onwards shows that an increasing number of the ritual ele-
ments, and the overall lore surrounding the construction and worship
of these structures of power gradually caused it to become so.^49 The
key word to this practice is “empowerment,” understood as a ritual
method of invigorating an ordinary building, of infusing it with divine
power. In addition to the ritual process itself, the officiating monks
also needed various objects of power, such as relics, and various holy
items, such as images and Buddhist books. Among the latter, written
(^46) For a classic study on this important master of Chan and Esoteric Buddhism, see
Osabe 1963. Incidentally, there is no mention in this work of any connection between
Yixing and Korean Sŏn monks. For Yixing see Keyworth, “Yixing,” this volume.
(^47) Given the great discrepancy in the dates of these two monks, actually over one
hundred years, it is obviously impossible to give any credibility to the supposed link
between them. We are clearly dealing with a pious Korean tradition, a myth, which
seeks to lend authority to the Esoteric Buddhist lineage of Tosŏn. For a discussion of
the Esoteric Buddhist elements in Tosŏn’s teaching, see Sŏ 1993, 32–67. See also the
more recent study by Sŏ 1999.
(^48) Reference to geomantic practices by other Sŏn monks can also be documented
in the epitaph raised for Tosŏn’s disciple Kyŏngbo (868–948), where there is
evidence that he too was an adept of p’ungsu (see CKS I, 189, 193). However, this
practice was not limited to monks from the Mt. Tongni school of Korean
Sŏn, but was also practiced by monks from the Mt. Hŭiyang school , e.g., by
Kŭngyang (878–956) and possibly his disciples as well (CKS I, 204).
(^49) See Orzech and Sørensen, “Stūpas and Relics,” in this volume.