. early esoteric buddhism in korea 591
or printed dhāraṇīs would appear to have been especially important
(cf. Chang 1987, 195–222).
One the most important early items directly connected to Eso-
teric Buddhism is the woodblock print of a dhāraṇī sūtra, namely
the scroll of the Raśmivimalaviśuddha-prabhā-dhāraṇī sūtra,^50 which
was found in the Śākyamuni Stūpa (Sŏkka T’ap ) in Pulguk
Temple on the outskirts of the old Silla capital, Kyŏngju, in 1966.^51
The Raśmivimalaviśuddha-prabhā is a classical dhāraṇī sūtra that sets
forth the various kinds of merit and benefits a person will achieve
in connection with the erection of a stūpa. Due to the power of the
scripture (and in particular its dhāraṇī), the maker of the stūpa will
be protected by a host of Buddhist divinities including the Four
Heavenly Kings, Brahma, Indra, Maheśvara, Nārāyaṇa, yakṣas, and
vajrayakṣas. The presence of the copy of this dhāraṇī inside the stūpa
is evidence of the belief in the divine protection of dhāraṇīs in con-
junction with stūpa worship, and is an important example of the
functioning of Esoteric Buddhism as national protector in Unified
Silla.^52 The continued importance of the Raśmivimalaviśuddha dur-
ing the Unified Silla is documented in the Kuk wang Kyŏnŭng cho
Muguchŏng t’ap wŏngi (Record of Prayer
[Made on the Occasion of] Kyŏnŭng, King of the Nation, Making
the Raśmivimalaviśuddha Stūpa).^53 The Kyŏnŭng referred to in
the text of the inscription is the Buddhist name of King Munsŏng
(r. 839–857). The other important scripture on stūpa worship and
empowerment was Amoghavajra’s translation of the Sarvatathāgatā-
dhiṣthāna-hṛ ̣daya-guhyadhātukaraṇḍa-mudrā-dhāraṇī sūtra.^54 Here
it is taught that it is the scripture’s own inherent, divine power that
(^50) T. 1024. This scripture is reported to have been translated into Chinese in 704
C.E., which means that it was brought to Korea not long afterwards.
(^51) This woodblock print is dated to 751 C.E. and is considered the oldest extant
woodblock-printed sūtra in the world. For additional information, see Chang 2004,
264–265. 52
In the course of the Unified Silla a trend in Buddhist belief developed in
which the construction of stūpas was understood as enhancing the “vital forces”
(ki ) of a given locale. This development may have taken place due to a combi-
nation of geomantic principles (p’ungsu), inclusive of the lore of the five elements
(ŏhang ) and yin-yang philosophy, as well as Esoteric Buddhist beliefs relating to
empowerment and the ritual augmentation of inanimate objects (see Yang Unyong
1999).
(^53) For the full text of the inscription, see Hwang Suyŏng 1976–1981, 147–150.
(^54) T. 1022ab. The earliest surviving version of this dhāraṇī sūtra found in Korea
dates from 1007 C.E. This printed version is of the typical small-scroll form, as is