594 henrik h. sørensen
for the identification it would appear to be a representation of the
vidyārāja Kuṇḍali rather than Vajrayaksa.̣^61 However, what is most
important to note is that we here have a full-fledged Esoteric Buddhist
image, the iconography of which matches closely that associated with
established Zhenyan Buddhist iconography from the second half of
the Tang.^62 Although admittedly a fairly modest image, the very fact
that such a piece of Korean Buddhist art has been found indicates that
certain elements of this developed form of Esoteric Buddhism were
present in Korea during the second half of the Unified Silla (cf. MDJ
vol. 1, 339, pls. on p. 366).
Buddha images that can be readily identified with Esoteric Bud-
dhism are rare and only occur in the material from the late Unified
Silla. Interestingly enough, it is chiefly within the context of Sŏn Bud-
dhism that images of the Esoteric Vairocana Buddha has been found.^63
Iconographically, these images do not deviate significantly from stan-
dard Buddha images from the late Silla except that they hold their
hands in the characteristic vajramuṣtī-mudrạ̄ (alt. śrī-bodhi-mudrā/
jñāna-mudrā ) in which the left hand grasps the upright index
finger of the right hand (see Mun 1992, 55–89). It is significant that no
crowned Vairocana images from the Silla have so far been found. This
fact, when seen in light of the general absence of Buddhist sculptures
made in accordance with the iconographic lore of Esoteric Buddhism,
in particular the mature Zhenyan tradition of the second half of the
Tang, indicates that a formal and full transmission to Silla of this form
of Esoteric Buddhism never took place.^64
(^61) This is mainly due to the positioning of the central pair of arms crossed over the
chest and the hands forming the Kuṇḍali-mudrā in combination with the staff and
wheel attributes, standard characteristics of this protector. For images with similar
iconography, see TZ vol. 6, 257–262. See also MDJ vol. 1, 424c–226. This would also
indicate that the image may have been one of a pair, the other one being the vidyārāja
Ucchuṣma. It is common in Esoteric iconography to have this pair of protectors flank
a main deity such as the thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara. It is of course also possible
that the present image originally formed part of a group of five vidyārājas, depicting
the main group of Esoteric protectors of the Mandala of the Benevolent Kings in
accordance with the Zhenyan tradition.
(^62) For a discussion of the development of Zhenyan see Orzech, “Esoteric Buddhism
in the Tang: From Atikūṭa to Amoghavajra (653-780),” and “After Amoghavajra: Eso-
teric Buddhism in the Late Tang,” in this volume. 63
For a list of these images as well as the relevant texts of dedication, see Mun
1980, 233–251, 278–283. 64
This view stands in rather sharp contrast to that of most Korean scholars who
maintain that Esoteric Buddhism of the Zhenyan brand was transmitted to Unified