. early esoteric buddhism in korea 593
undoubtedly represents Śākyamuni as Vairocana in accordance with
the Avataṃsaka sūtra, which is why the iconography of this image is
distinctly exoteric in nature. The only carving that is clearly an Esoteric
Buddhist figure, both from the point of view of its textual background
and iconography, is the relief of the eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara,
Ekādaśamukha, mentioned previously.^57 The appearance of this form
of the bodhisattva is in itself not sufficient proof that the cave shrine
was inspired by Esoteric Buddhism, and in lieu of historical sources we
must consider it a bit far-fetched to see Sŏkkuram as such.^58 However,
given that the Avataṃsaka sūtra and the Hwaŏm school was prevalent
in the Kyŏngju area during the mid-eighth century, it is highly likely
that Sŏkkuram and its iconic arrangement reflects the Avataṃsaka cult
with some influence from Esoteric Buddhism. Incidentally, the same
situation can be found in Nara Buddhism in Japan prior to the return
of Kūkai from China (Ryūichi Abé 1999, 154–176).
A small, gilt-bronze image of the important vidyārāja Mahāmāyūrī,
said to date from the late Three Kingdoms period or the early Unified
Silla (i.e., the seventh century), has recently been identified. However,
given the iconography of the piece in question, which matches the
iconographical descriptions in Yijing’s translation, such an early dat-
ing is in my view rather doubtful. Hence a mid-Unified Silla dating of
ca. 800 C.E. would appear more likely.^59 Even so, this image offers us
with important evidence as regards the presence of the Mahāmāyūrī
cult under the Unified Silla.
Another early image of a vidyārāja inside a stylized gate building
on a small, gilded-bronze plaque has been identified by the Korean
scholar Yi Ho’gwan as depicting the protector Vajrayaks ̣a,
and in his estimation it dates from the Unified Silla.^60 In my view
this image dates from the late eighth century at the earliest, at the
time when the teachings and ritual practices of Zhenyan Buddhism
were being introduced to the Korean Peninsula from Tang China. As
(^57) For a trans-cultural study of this important aspect of Avalokiteśvara, see Wong
and Field 2008, 176–180.
(^58) One of the most useful studies of the numerous studies on the shrine is Mun
- This work does not refer to Esoteric Buddhism in connection with the carvings
here, but correctly associates them with Hwaŏm Buddhism. 59
See Yi Hogwan 1985, 335–336, pl. 40. The image is currently in the collection of
the Tokyo National Museum. 60
Cf. Yi Hogwan 1984, 227–342 and Yi Hogwan 1985, 313–369. Also kept in the
Tokyo National Museum.