Rafael, Campos de Oro, El Dos de Abangares (Pacific
slope), and La Chiripa and Cabeceras (Atlantic slope).
Many of these farms started as beef farms and added
dairying after 1985 to increase their income. Milk
production in dual-purpose herds is low (4.5 kg/day
in the rainy season, 3 kg/day in the dry season). Low
productivity increases the minimum economically
viable farm size, so dual-purpose farms are typically
larger than specialized dairy farms (20-150 ha, aver-
age ca. 40 ha), of which around 75% is in pasture
(J. J. Monge, pers. comm.). Dual-purpose farms are a
growing source of milk for the dairy plant; in 1996,
80 of the plant's 210 producers were dual-purpose
operations (J. L. Vargas, pers. comm.).
The cattle graze on deforested slopes that have
either native grasses (pitilla, kalinguero, San Augustin,
and Guinea, in order of importance) or improved
grasses (jeragua and Star Grass). About 85% of the
farms use improved grasses for their producing cows.
For many years, annual pasture burning was the only
form of pasture fertilization and weed control (see
Griffith, "Pasture Burning," pp. 411-412). Since the
mid-1980s, burning has been outlawed; it is no longer
practiced on area farms (J. J. Monge, pers. comm.).
Dual-purpose farm stocking rates are low (<1 cow/ha).
Pasture rotations are common; paddocks are larger
and grazed longer (5-10 days) than on the upland
farms. Cows are usually fed mineral salts with mo-
lasses. Reproductive health is fair (J. J. Monge, pers.
comm.). Only 5% of the farmers use programmed vet-
erinary visits; the majority wait until a problem arises.
Despite its environmental costs, farmers have
adopted the dual-purpose system for compelling rea-
sons. First, it requires minimal financial investment.
The main inputs are the land, fencing, and the ani-
mals. Production costs are low. The cows receive only
minerals and molasses, pastures are not fertilized, and
labor inputs are low. The system requires little infra-
structure, farm management skills, or education. Land
and forage can be of marginal quality (Cipaguata
1993). This semidiversified production system par-
tially insulates farmers from milk and beef price fluc-
tuations. Milk provides a steady dependable income;
cow and calf sales provide seasonal sporadic income.
The system limits risks, which is an important con-
sideration for families on the economic margin (Hart-
shorn et al. 1982, Jarvis 1986, Cipaguata 1993). This
system is also attractive from a macroeconomic per-
spective. It is practiced mostly on small and medium-
sized farms, which has positive implications for land
tenure and social equity. It does not require high-
quality land and absorbs more rural labor than spe-
cialized beef production. It relies on minimal credit
and extension services compared to specialized dairy-
ing. In contrast to specialized dairy and beef opera-
tions, dual-purpose cows do not compete with humans
for grain, which reduces prices of grains, meat, and
milk. The dual-purpose system is both biologically
and economically more efficient than specialized
milk or beef production (Preston 1976, Jarvis 1986,
McDowell 1993).11.2.2. Sustainability of Lowlands
Dual-Purpose and Beef Production
Although the relationship between beef cattle and
deforestation has been discussed (Myers 1981, Hart-
shorn et al. 1982, Williams 1986, Leonard 1987, Annis
1990, Rifkin 1992), how sustainable beef/dual pur-
pose production is and how sustainability can be in-
creased in the Monteverde milkshed are not known.
Regional data suggest unsustainably high erosion
rates on beef operations in the same life zones as the
Monteverde dairy producers. Erosion from cattle op-
erations in the very moist forest life zone is estimated
to be 400-800 tons/ha/yr (Hartshorn et al. 1982).
The same study classified almost 30% of the Pa-
cific slope as "severely" or "extremely" eroded, and
another 30% as "lightly" or "moderately" eroded. In
contrast, the Atlantic slope was classified as only 5%
extremely or severely eroded, and 18% lightly or
moderately eroded. The greater erosion on the Pacific
slope is a result of (1) widespread deforestation for
cattle-raising, (2) the more erosive pattern of rainfall
(almost all precipitation occurs during a few months),
(3) pasture burning during the dry season, and (4)
clayey, relatively shallow soils that resist water ab-
sorption (Hartshorn et al. 1982). Water infiltration
rates on forested land in Guanacaste province (which
includes part of the Monteverde lowland milkshed)
were 49 times higher than in adjacent pasture land
that had been subjected to a decade of overgrazing and
periodic burning (C. Quesada, pers. comm.).
National beef production declined during the 1970s
and 1980s (Saborio 1981, Leonard 1987, D. Kaimo-
witz, pers. comm.). Pasture area and stocking rates
have declined in Puntarenas province (of which the
Monteverde milkshed is a part), which may reflect,
at least in part, pasture degradation caused by erosion,
overgrazing, and soil compaction (D. Kaimowitz, pers.
comm.). Data on productivity, soil, and economic
factors are needed to determine the sustainability of
Monteverde's dual-purpose farms.11.2.3. Opportunities for Improving
Sustainability
Practices that could improve the sustainability of the
dual-purpose and beef operations center on intensi-
fication of production, which would reduce pressure399 Agriculture in Monteverde: Moving Toward Sustainability