on remaining forest and improve soil and forage man-
agement (Hartshorn et al. 1982, McDowell 1993, Par-
sons 1983).
Forage management. The greatest limitation to pro-
ductivity is the seasonal variation in forage avail-
ability (Preston 1976, Stobbs 1976, McDowell 1993),
which is more acute in the Monteverde lowlands than
uplands. Low stocking rates are necessary to ensure
minimally adequate nutrition during the dry season,
but this creates a problem in the rainy season because
forage matures faster than the animals can consume
it, and it rapidly loses nutritional value. Weedy and
less palatable species are left untouched and can
gradually take over the pasture. Optimal stocking
densities during the rainy season usually mean over-
grazing during the dry season, which causes erosion
and damage to the grass.
Other forage management practices include fertili-
zation, rotational grazing, improved grasses, grass-
legume mixes, and weed control. Challenges in this
system are similar but greater in magnitude than in
the upland systems. The low productivity of the dual-
purpose system puts constraints on increasing inputs.
For example, fertilization is an economic necessity
in the upland farms, but its value is uncertain in the
dual-purpose setting (Stobbs 1976, Bunderson and
Frye 1986, P. Sanchez and M. Ara, unpubl. data).
Research is needed on the agronomic and economic
aspects of pasture fertilization, rotational grazing,
forage species, and weed control in the Monteverde
lowlands.
Animal nutrition. Cattle in the tropics frequently
suffer from mineral deficiencies, which reduce pro-
ductivity, increase illness, and cause reproductive
problems (McDowell 1976, Warnick 1976). These
deficiencies become more acute as production rises
through improved forage management; tropical for-
ages alone are usually inadequate sources of minerals.
The economic return on mineral supplements is gen-
erally high (McDowell et al. 1986); almost all Monte-
verde farms use them. The primary challenge for farm-
ers is to feed their cows adequately during the dry
season. Dry season forage maintains body weight, but
not growth or milk production. Improved forage man-
agement can only partially ameliorate this. Farmers
may also supplement pasture forage with other feeds
(grain, agroindustrial wastes such as cottonseed or rice
polishings, sugarcane, molasses, banana plants, and
cassava; Donefer 1976, Preston 1976). If the supple-
mental feed is produced on the farm, it must coincide
with seasonal labor availability, and the farmer's land
and capital constraints. Research is needed on prom-
ising feeds for the Monteverde lowlands.Animal genetics. Most of the lowland producers have
Zebu cows or crosses of Zebu with dairy breeds. Zebu
cows are hardy and well adapted to the hot climate
and to low-quality forages. Crossed with specialized
dairy breeds, milk production can increase consider-
ably but only with adequate nutrition. Genetic im-
provement has been a major focus of research and
extension with mixed results (Plasse 1976). The best
policy is to create a range of genetic mixes available
to farmers through artificial insemination programs
(McDowell 1993). Aggressive culling of heifers that
do not conceive in a 3—4-month breeding season or
that produce inferior calves can give excellent results
(Plasse 1976).Herd health. Increasing the proportion of European
dairy breeds in a herd, intensifying production, and
increasing stocking rates can increase the incidence
of disease. Maintaining substantial Zebu blood in the
crosses helps, as they are more resistant to ticks and
many diseases than are European breeds. Very inten-
sive grazing, frequent paddock changes, and preven-
tive veterinary care can dramatically reduce parasite
problems (Ellis and Hugh Jones 1976).Reforestation. Reforestation is undoubtedly a good
environmental practice on the steep slopes of the low-
land farms. However, establishing forest on degraded
pasture is costly and difficult due to the depleted
soils, the harsh dry season, and the need to reestab-
lish rhizobia for many tree species. Reforestation costs
around $2000/ha (J. Segleau, unpubl. data), an im-
mense investment for most farmers. Reforestation
is also labor intensive and produces no immediate
income.- Coffee Production
11.3.1. History and Development
Many farms in the Monteverde uplands produce cof-
fee for personal and commercial use. Several hectares
of coffee can provide enough income to support a
family. It produces an unusually high return and is
attractive for farmers with limited land. In the upland
area, coffee establishment grew out of an economic
diversification strategy sparked by the financial
troubles of the late 1970s. Most of the land commit-
ted to coffee in the early years was marginal, steeply
sloping dairy pasture. Under coffee production, these
soils became better stabilized and milk production
was minimally affected. Coffee is typically one of
several farm activities. Seventy percent of the coffee
producers regard dairying as their main activity, 10%400 Agriculture in Monteverde: Moving Toward Sustainability