“Dong si Menggu shiji,” 221 ; Zhou Rong,“Kang, Qian shengshi de renkou
pengzhang,” 113 , 114.
86 Some suggestive material dates the“near complete destruction”of the tigers’
forested habitat by the early nineteenth century, with serious erosion visible
in the twentieth century; Marks,“Commercialization without Capitalism,”
70 – 75.
87 Fan Haoming et al.,“Zhongguo Dongbei,” 66 – 70 ; Yang Xulian et al.,
Qingdai dongbei shi, 440 – 50.
88 Wang,Land Taxation in Imperial China, 26 – 27 ; Li,“Changes in Climate,
Land and Human Efforts,” 478. Xinjiang was yet another place where it was
reported that cases of abandoned waste previously cleared for agriculture
were“numerous.”This was attributed mainly to lack of water, although
“the greater half”of the territory was not arable because of mountains,
alkaline soil, and sand;Dao, Xian, Tong, Guang sichao zouyi, 3 : 962 – 68.
In the vast Liaoning herding complex of Daling He, only thirty thousandmu
out of an originally authorized agricultural clearance space of more than
123 , 000 mu, opened in the Jiaqing reign, was eventually found viable for
cultivation after dust storms devastated the rest. Taxation was declared
“canceled”for this lost acreage. The pasture, however, remained under
arablist pressure into the succeeding Daoguang and Xianfeng reigns
( 3 : 1203 – 07 ). Cited in Vermeer,“Ch’ing Government Concerns,” 217.
89 Dao, Xian, Tong, Guang sichao zouyi, 3 : 962 – 68. Cited and translated in
Vermeer,“Ch’ing Government Concerns,” 217.
90 Skinner,“Sichuan’s Population Data in the Nineteenth Century,” 11 , 72.
91 Marks,“It Never Used to Snow”; Li,“Changes Climate, Land and Human
Efforts”; Myers and Wang,“Economic Developments,” 569.
92 Myers and Wang,“Economic Developments,” 60.
93 Will,Bureaucracy and Famine, 241 , 244.
94 Shangdong peasants in Yizhou during the 1660 s, for example, were reported
“too timid to ask for relief as long as they could make ends meet even
barely.”In another instance many damaged plots were not listed as requiring
relief“because their owners had fled”; Huang Liuhong, A Complete
Book, 164.
95 Wang,Land Taxation in Imperial China,pp. 32 – 33. For Shaanxi, see
Vermeer,“Ch’ing Government Concerns,” 236.
96 Wang,Land Taxation in Imperial China, 27 – 31.
97 Winterhalder,“Concepts in Historical Ecology,” 39 – 40.
98 Cao Yishi,“Qing heshi kaiken dimu shu,” 1. 855 b– 56 a; Ya-er-tu,““Kan bao
kai ken xu shi shu,” 1 : 851 a– 52 a. Vermeer,“Ch’ing Government Concerns,”
which translates portions of both memorials, can be read in some sections as an
exposé of serious distortions in official reportage of acreage increases in China
proper, especially Section VI.
99 Vermeer,“Ch’ing Government Concerns,” 235.
100 Walter and Hengeveld,“The Structure of the Two Ecological Paradigms,”
40 – 41. One paradigm is“the demographic paradigm,”which considers
dynamics within a population to the virtual exclusion of external ecological
interactions. The other, “the autecological paradigm,” takes these
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