and A.T. Reyes, ‘Reconstructing the Serapeum from the archaeological evidence’, Journal of
Roman Studies 94 (2004), 35–63.
27 Below, Chapters 3 and 7, and see in general Michael E. Gaddis, There is no Crime for those who
have Christ. Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2005); H.A. Drake, ed., Violence in Late Antiquity (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), part IV;
T.E. Gregory, Vox Populi. Popular Opinion and Violence in the Religious Controversies of the Fifth
Century AD (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1979). For the way in which the
murder of Hypatia was treated by pagan and Christian writers (the sixth-century Neopla-
tonist Damascius, the church historian Socrates and the seventh-century chronicler John of
Nikiu) see Edward Watts, ‘The murder of Hypatia: acceptable or unacceptable violence?’,
in Drake, ed., Violence in Late Antiquity, 333–42.
28 See Chapters 5 and 8 below.
29 For the antecedents, with an emphasis on church councils, see Judith Herrin, The Formation
of Christendom (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987).
30 The Greek hymn to the Virgin known as the Akathistos and usually ascribed to the sixth
century is dated to the period after the Council of Ephesus by Leena Mari Peltomaa, The
Image of the Virgin in the Akathistos Hymn (Leiden: Brill, 2001). It is often argued that the
Empress Pulcheria particularly promoted the cult of the Virgin, and she was certainly an
active infl uence: see e.g. Holum, Theodosian Empresses; V. Limberis, Divine Heiress. The Virgin
Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople (London: Routledge, 1994); Kate Cooper,
‘Empress and Theotokos. Gender and patronage in the christological controversy’, in R.
Swanson, ed., The Church and Mary (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2004), 39–51; but
see Richard Price, ‘Marian piety and the Nestorian controversy’, ibid., 31–38; C. Angelidi,
Pulcheria. La castità al potere (c. 399-c. 455) (Milan: Jaca Book, 1996). She was certainly a pow-
erful fi gure before and during the Council, and indeed later: see Liz James, Empresses and
Power in Early Byzantium (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 2001).
31 On the Council and its Acts, see Thomas Graumann, ‘“Reading” the fi rst council of Ephe-
sus (431)’, in Richard Price and Mary Whitby, eds., Chalcedon in Context. Church Councils 400–
700 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 27–44; procedures at councils: Ramsay
MacMullen, Voting about God in Early Church Councils (New Haven: Yale University Press,
2006).
32 See Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, chapter 5. An excellent succinct introduction to the
councils of Ephesus I, II and Chalcedon is given in Richard Price and Michael Gaddis, The
Acts of the Council of Chalcedon (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), I, 17–51.
33 For Ibas/Hiba, see Robert Doran, Stewards of the Poor. The Man of God, Rabbula and Hiba in
Fifth-Century Edessa, trans. with introduction and notes (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publi-
cations, 2006), 109–32. Parts of the proceedings are contained in the Acts of Chalcedon,
which reviewed the decisions made in 449; otherwise the Acts of Ephesus II survive in
two partial sixth-century Syriac translations, one a Miaphysite version highly favourable
to Dioscorus: Fergus Millar, ‘The Syriac Acts of the Second Council of Ephesus (449)’, in
Price and Whitby, eds., Chalcedon in Context, 45–69, especially 46–49; partial translation of
the latter version in Doran, Stewards of the Poor, 133–88.
34 See Richard Price, ‘The council of Chalcedon (451): a narrative’, in Price and Whitby, eds.,
Chalcedon in Context, 70–91.
35 See Brent D. Shaw, ‘African Christianity: disputes, defi nitions and “Donatists”’, in Shaw,
Rulers, Nomads and Christians in Roman North Africa (Aldershot: Variorum, 1995), XI; Brown,
Augustine of Hippo, 330–39; Erika T. Hermanowicz, Possidius of Calama. A Study of the North
African Episcopate at the Time of Augustine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
36 See Pauline Allen, ‘The defi nition and enforcement of orthodoxy’, Cambridge Ancient His-
tory XIV, 811–34, at 815–18.
37 For Severus of Antioch see Pauline Allen and C.T.R. Hayward, Severus of Antioch (London:
Routledge, 2004); Severus was also soon driven into exile, but has left important writings,
originally in Greek but now preserved only in Syriac.
38 See J. Nelson, ‘Symbols in context: rulers’ inauguration rituals in Byzantium and the west in
NOTES TO CHAPTER 1