296 Chapter 35
disadvantaged in terms of their mental health. Thus, one large study
showed that the average rate of emotional and behavioural difficulties is
greatest in the youngest third of the class and lowest in the oldest third –
an effect evident in 11–15-year-olds as well as 5–10-year-olds. This effect
of ‘relative age’ is not strong at the individual level, but even moderate
effects that apply to many individuals can be important from a public
health perspective. Abolishing the effect of relative age could potentially
eliminate about 8% of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders.
One possible explanation for the vulnerability of the youngest pupils
in a class is that their emotional and intellectual immaturity makes it
harder for them to hold their own socially and academically in their
peer group. Smaller size and lesser strength may also be risk factors
for bullying and marginalisation, particularly among boys. In addition,
teachers commonly forget to make appropriate allowances for relative age,
which may lead to younger pupils being unfairly regarded as failing when
they are performing adequately for their age – something that may well be
stressful. Taking the class register in birth order rather than alphabetical
order is one easy way to raise teachers’ awareness of relative age. Though
being one of the oldest in a class is generally beneficial, it may carry its own
risks, such as being bored, or being trained to be coercive (since aggressive
interactions are more likely to be rewarded when the perpetrator is bigger
and stronger by virtue of being older).
Interventions
For children and adolescents who do not have friends, social skills pro-
grammes that specifically target building friendships have been proven ef-
fective in controlled trials. More indirectly, the power of peer relationships
can be harnessed to help psychological problems. This is useful, when a
child’s behaviour has been improved at home but peer pressure seems to
lead him to be oppositional in class. Teachers can set up a scheme whereby,
for example, the class is divided into three groups, and the group that
behaves best during the morning gets a reward at lunchtime, perhaps
ten minutes extra break or first choice on the lunch menu. If a child
misbehaves, his peers are responsible for stopping the misbehaviour (and
they usually do this with alacrity). Such an approach has also been proven
effective in trials, and can have enduring effects on future mental health.
Subject review
Hay DFet al.(2004) Peer relations in childhood.Journal of Child Psychology
and Psychiatry 45 , 84–108.
Rutter M, Maughan B. (2002) School effectiveness findings 1979–2002.
Journal of School Psychology 40 , 451–475.
Smith P. (2004) Bullying: recent developments.Child and Adolescent Mental
Health 9 , 98–103.